How Did The Universe Begin?

Aug 9, 2023

How Did The Universe Begin?

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Researched and Written by Leila Battison

Narrated and Edited by David Kelly

Animations by Jero Squartini https://www.fiverr.com/share/0v7Kjv

Thumbnail art by Ettore Mazza: https://www.instagram.com/ettore.mazz…

Art by Joseph Ioseliani

Sound Editing by Jack White

If you like our videos, check out Leila’s Youtube channel:

/ @somethingincredible

Music from Epidemic Sound and Artlist
Stock footage from Videoblocks and Artgrid
Galaxies, space videos from NASA and ESO

Image Credits:

UY Scuti By ESO/Digitized Sky Survey 2 - DSS2: http://aladin.u-strasbg.fr/AladinLite…, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index…

Peter Higgs By Bengt Nyman - Flickr: IMG_7516, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index…

Particle collision By Brookhaven National Laboratory - https://www.flickr.com/photos/1130437…, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index…

Cloud Chamber by Stephen Curry, CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/…, via Wikimedia Commons

REFERENCES:

https://www.scientificamerican.com/ar…
https://www.mpg.de/13392365/first-ast…
https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/big-b…
https://www.sci.news/astronomy/amino-…
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelv…
https://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BB…
https://www.britannica.com/science/el…
http://sciexplorer.blogspot.com/2011/…
https://www.polytechnique-insights.co…
https://science.nasa.gov/ems/02_anatomy
https://www.theguardian.com/environme…
https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics…
https://www.space.com/james-webb-spac…
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/p…
https://astro.ucla.edu/~wright/Lyman-…
https://www.quantamagazine.org/big-bo…
https://www.astro.umd.edu/~miller/nst…
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https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/…
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/…
https://gizmodo.com/if-you-fold-a-pap…
https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-ba…
https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-03-31-…
https://www-project.slac.stanford.edu…
https://www.britannica.com/science/ph…
https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do…
https://depts.washington.edu/imreslab…
https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswi…
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/…
https://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-…
https://academic.oup.com/mnras/articl…
https://www.theguardian.com/environme…
https://www.physics.unlv.edu/~jeffery…
https://www.aps.org/programs/honors/h…
https://darkcosmos.com/home/f/baryon-…
https://www.nature.com/articles/d4158…
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1703.00013.pdf

00:00 Introduction
05:44 1. The Planck Era: First Ten-Tredecillionth Of A Second
18:51 2. Grand Unification: First Undecillionth of A Second
26:56 3. Inflation: First Picosecond
41:43 4. The Higgs and Mass: First Billionth of a Second
56:06 5. Fine Tuning, Protons, Neutrons and Antimatter: First Millionth of a Second
1:13:23 6. Neutrinos and Primordial Black Holes: First Second
1:31:59 7. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: First Minute
1:44:12 8. The First Molecule: First 100,000 Years
1:54:59 9. First Atoms, First Light: First 380,000 Years
2:10:23 10: Dark Matter and Dark Energy: First Million Years

Content

1.879 -> 13.8 billion years ago the universe

5.66 -> began

7.44 -> in one moment there was nothing and the

10.2 -> next

11.28 -> everything just how this is possible is

14.759 -> perhaps the biggest question in all of

16.68 -> science crossing the boundaries between

18.9 -> Theory and experiment physics and

21.539 -> philosophy everything we know about our

24.539 -> universe hinges on mechanism process and

27.84 -> causality we strive to understand the

30.48 -> reasons things are the way they are and

33.42 -> yet at the most fundamental level we do

36.48 -> not know how or why the entire universe

41.16 -> came to be

42.07 -> [Music]

45.3 -> but this lack of explanation is not for

48.539 -> want of searching

51.059 -> perhaps as famed cosmologist Stephen

53.46 -> Hawking once supposed there really was

56.039 -> nothing before considering space and

58.739 -> time as inherent conjoined properties of

61.26 -> the universe we inhabit the beginning of

63.48 -> that Universe marked the beginning of

65.519 -> time before time there could be no space

67.979 -> and therefore no Universe considering

70.5 -> the geometry of space-time back through

72.42 -> the ages he saw it contract curve around

75.36 -> and eventually round off searching for

78.06 -> something beyond that would be as

79.86 -> meaningless as searching for something

81.6 -> that was north of the North Pole

84.659 -> or perhaps there was no actual beginning

87.78 -> but rather a limit to our powers of

90.36 -> observation scientists believe that it

92.64 -> was a split-second period of exponential

94.979 -> expansion known as inflation that put

97.86 -> the bang in the Big Bang and which set

100.38 -> the stage for everything that was to

102.299 -> follow our inflation stopped after a

104.7 -> tiny fraction of a second but some

106.56 -> physicists have argued that this is not

108.42 -> the only period of inflation in the

110.579 -> cosmos as a whole rather inflation would

113.52 -> continue elsewhere

115.2 -> eternally producing bubble universes

117.18 -> distributed through a potent Everlasting

119.88 -> Multiverse

121.14 -> or perhaps our current universe is

123.659 -> merely the latest in a long and

125.52 -> potentially infinite series of expanding

127.86 -> and Contracting Cosmos a theory known as

130.739 -> the big bounce in this instead of

132.9 -> starting from nothing and inflating

134.52 -> exponentially to reduce the structure we

136.56 -> see today contemporary physicists like

139.26 -> Paul steinhardt suggest a cyclical

141.66 -> growth and contraction of everything

143.819 -> within the universe or perhaps our

146.819 -> understanding of scale is fundamentally

149.099 -> incomplete physicist Roger Penrose

151.86 -> considered the properties of shapes

153.48 -> regardless of their size and believes we

155.819 -> can do the same with the cosmos in this

158.34 -> idea the universe loses a sense of time

160.98 -> and scale at the infinitely small and

163.319 -> the infinitely big and becomes to all

165.72 -> intents and purposes equivalent the game

168.599 -> of chess played the same whether on a

170.94 -> board that fits in your pockets or spans

173.459 -> an entire Courtyard

175.56 -> or perhaps our Cosmos came about as a

178.14 -> transient Collision of Dimensions String

181.2 -> Theory attempts to explain the

182.94 -> fundamentals of reality as Tiny

185.16 -> vibrating strings within an

186.84 -> 11-dimensional reality of hyperspace the

189.9 -> three dimensions of space and one

191.519 -> dimension of time that we experience

193.26 -> within our Cosmos are merely a single

195.84 -> brain in the overall bulk with the

198.36 -> beginning and growth of our universe

199.92 -> coming about as higher order brains

202.08 -> collide

206.76 -> or perhaps there is something else

209.819 -> some corner of mathematics or physics

212.099 -> that we have yet to shine a light into

213.9 -> and which for the time being eludes our

217.319 -> understanding

220.319 -> for now our universe's origin story

222.9 -> remains a mystery a multiple choice

225.659 -> Choose Your Own Adventure

228.18 -> nevertheless

229.94 -> 13.8 billion years ago the universe did

234.42 -> begin

236.34 -> and this is the story

239.22 -> of what happened next

241.38 -> [Music]

255.959 -> thank you to betterhelp for sponsoring

258 -> this video this is Proxima Centauri even

261.479 -> if we traveled at more than 50 000

263.58 -> kilometers an hour it would still take

265.32 -> us more than eighty thousand years to

267.24 -> arrive there and it is our closest star

269.58 -> it's estimated there are a hundred

271.38 -> thousand million more distant stars in

274.44 -> the Milky Way and so sometimes it can be

276.96 -> overwhelming to square our own lives

279.06 -> with the vastness of everything else and

281.88 -> to work these things through it's nice

283.919 -> to have some help better help is the

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289.139 -> 100 online with better help you can tap

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300 -> talk to your therapist however you feel

301.62 -> comfortable whether it's via text chat

303.54 -> or video call you can also message your

305.82 -> therapist at any time and schedule live

307.979 -> sessions when it's convenient for you

309.72 -> and if your therapist isn't the right

311.4 -> fit for any reason you can switch to a

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329.16 -> your first month at betterhelp.com

330.96 -> forward slash hotu and I've also linked

334.199 -> them Below in the description thanks to

337.02 -> betterhelp for supporting educational

338.88 -> content on YouTube

347.34 -> where is the hottest place in the

351.24 -> universe

352.919 -> you might expect to find it in the

354.96 -> natural Fusion reactor at the center of

357.479 -> a star but even as you incinerate in the

360 -> plunge through its fiery depths your

362.4 -> journey would be in vain temperatures of

364.86 -> the core reach a mere 15 million degrees

367.38 -> Celsius you may look to even more

370.38 -> violent phenomena in the cosmos like

372.9 -> explosive supernovae here during the

375.66 -> dramatic death of a star superheated

377.699 -> shells of gas are ejected many light

379.74 -> years in every direction leaving a

381.9 -> gravitationally compactified neutron

384 -> star at their Center temperatures here

386.46 -> are far exceed normal Stellar furnaces

388.8 -> reaching 100 billion degrees Celsius but

392.819 -> this still isn't the hottest temperature

395.28 -> to be found in fact the highest

398.4 -> temperature that has ever been recorded

400.38 -> anywhere in our vast Cosmos was 100

403.199 -> meters beneath the snow-covered ground

405.539 -> near the shores of Lake Lamont in

408.3 -> Switzerland

409.979 -> foreign and it didn't come about from a

413.16 -> natural process but rather the concerted

415.86 -> efforts of hundreds of scientists and

418.56 -> billions of euros worth of research and

420.539 -> development in cern's Large Hadron

423.3 -> Collider were individual particles are

425.639 -> routinely smashed into one another at

427.5 -> velocities approaching the speed of

429 -> light the Collision of two lead atoms in

432.18 -> 2012 briefly produced a temperature of

435.06 -> around 5.5 trillion degrees Celsius 50

440.099 -> times hotter than a supernova

443.52 -> but this still isn't even close to the

448.02 -> highest possible temperature

454.139 -> temperature is little more than a

456.12 -> manifestation of a particle's energy its

458.52 -> motion or how fast it's vibrating

460.38 -> absolute zero marking zero Kelvin is the

463.56 -> lowermost limit where particles

465.36 -> hypothetically would come to a complete

467.34 -> shuddering stop were it possible to

469.62 -> reach but there was also an upper limit

471.539 -> to an absolute heart that marks the

474.599 -> highest temperature before the particles

476.34 -> themselves are torn apart by their own

478.62 -> energy it's known as the Planck

480.9 -> temperature and it is around 1.4 times

484.02 -> 10 to the 32 Kelvin Max Planck who gave

488.099 -> his name to this impossibly blistering

489.9 -> temperature was a German theoretical

491.52 -> physicist who found his academic stride

493.86 -> around the beginning of the 20th century

495.78 -> his ideas are seen as the founding

497.819 -> blocks of quantum physics and led to the

500.099 -> quantization of light into discrete

501.96 -> chunks of energy called photons but they

504.72 -> also led him to consider the fundamental

507 -> quanta of other natural phenomena

511.979 -> using such Universal qualities as the

514.56 -> speed of light and the force of gravity

516.18 -> in combination with his eponymous Planck

518.219 -> constant he defined the Planck length

521.159 -> the smallest Quantum of distance as

523.979 -> around 1.6 times 10 to the minus 35

527.459 -> meters about 100 quintillion times

530.58 -> smaller than a proton the time it takes

533.58 -> for light to travel through this

534.899 -> minuscule distance through a vacuum is

536.94 -> the Planck time amounting to 5.39 times

540.959 -> 10 to the minus 44 seconds and the

544.2 -> Planck temperature that practical

545.94 -> measure of absolute heat is the

547.86 -> temperature at which the wavelength of

549.54 -> thermal radiation reaches the Planck

552.12 -> diameter it can go no smaller

558.779 -> it is no fair reflection on the human

561.48 -> brain to say that these numbers are

563.76 -> beyond our true comprehension we are

566.64 -> evolutionarily attuned to scales that

568.86 -> are relevant to us and so it may seem

571.62 -> that these Planck units are too small or

574.8 -> in the case of temperature too large to

577.38 -> be of any practical use but it is when

580.2 -> contemplating the immeasurably tiny

582.54 -> moment at the beginning of our

583.98 -> immeasurably vast Cosmos that these

586.92 -> units really come into their own

591 -> because our universe is expanding

593.82 -> becoming less dense and it has been for

597.12 -> all its history scientists don't know if

599.82 -> our universe is infinite or not but if

602.339 -> it is then it always has been so rather

604.92 -> than starting as a single point it would

607.14 -> have also begun infinitely large and

609.899 -> rather than grow over time it would

612.12 -> simply have become less dense our

615.72 -> observable universe the only part of the

618.06 -> universe we could ever see or interact

619.86 -> with or could ever see and interact with

622.019 -> us is limited by the speed of light and

624.779 -> the distance it has been able to travel

626.279 -> since the universe's birth 13.8 billion

629.519 -> years ago but as we travel back in time

632.16 -> the observable part of the universe

634.32 -> shrinks and becomes more compact until

637.019 -> eventually we get to a time when

638.88 -> everything within it was only a single

641.1 -> Planck unit of time old a single Planck

644.339 -> length in diameter and with all of our

646.86 -> observable universe compacted into such

649.079 -> a tiny space that temperature of the

652.5 -> whole Cosmos SATs squarely

655.38 -> Planck temperatures

661.019 -> it may come as little surprise to learn

663.3 -> that this moment 100 million trillion

666 -> trillion trillionths of a second after

667.74 -> the beginning of time and space is

669.899 -> therefore known as the Planck error

672.839 -> and it is a very strange time in the

677.339 -> cosmos today everything we experience is

679.86 -> governed by certain immutable laws of

682.32 -> nature which are ultimately controlled

684.3 -> by the interaction of four major forces

686.64 -> the strong force holding atoms together

688.8 -> the weak Force governing certain types

690.959 -> of radioactivity the electromagnetic

693.18 -> force Distributing energy over great

695.1 -> distances and gravity as Max Planck

698.279 -> predicted at the end of the 19th century

700.079 -> the strong weak and electromagnetic

702.54 -> forces can be quantized represented and

705.66 -> thought of as Tiny individual Parcels of

707.94 -> interaction similar to particles of

710.279 -> matter these so-called messenger

712.38 -> particles are known respectively as

714.6 -> gluons w and z bosons and photons

719.04 -> but gravity is different

721.92 -> with his general theory of relativity

724.14 -> Albert Einstein was responsible for

726.48 -> overthrowing the classical mechanical

728.339 -> definition of gravity instead he

731.1 -> conceptualized it as the curvature of

733.019 -> space-time a warping in the very fabric

735.6 -> of reality through various large-scale

738.24 -> experiments general relativity has been

740.64 -> verified time and time again and the

742.8 -> gravity-induced curvature of space-time

744.779 -> is now recognized as a property inherent

747.3 -> to the universe which affects all matter

749.82 -> and energy within it therefore during

753.36 -> the Planck era long before any of the

756 -> conventional laws of nature Hells sway

758.399 -> it was gravity that was the first to

761.88 -> manifest but there is a problem

764.94 -> everything we know about the workings of

767.579 -> gravity today is based on Einstein's

770.399 -> successful Theory but that theory is

772.98 -> only really tested and verified on

775.44 -> larger scales during the Planck era

778.2 -> however her entire observable universe

780.839 -> was condensed into an area many trillion

783.3 -> times smaller than a proton and so

785.94 -> general relativity doesn't really help

788.82 -> instead the Dynamics of the extremely

791.579 -> tiny are governed by quantum mechanics

794.279 -> at Scales small enough that we can

796.44 -> consider the individual subatomic

798.36 -> particles of matter or the quantized

800.519 -> messenger particles of force and energy

802.26 -> and entirely different set of rules hold

805.019 -> sway where nothing is ever where you

807.18 -> expect it to be and the Very Act of

809.399 -> observing changes the outcome instead of

812.279 -> dealing in absolutes Quantum physicists

815.1 -> consider probabilities and nothing ever

818.22 -> stays the same for long

822.06 -> fortunately for us this Lawless Quantum

824.88 -> world only Reigns on nanoscopic scales

827.519 -> and by the time we reach magnitudes that

829.62 -> we're more familiar with the

830.88 -> probabilistic weirdness averages out but

834 -> during the universally nanoscopic Planck

836.579 -> error there is no escaping the quantum

841.019 -> and herein lies the problem for

843.12 -> understanding how things actually worked

845.279 -> in that moment general relativity and

847.74 -> quantum mechanics are fundamentally

849.48 -> incompatible with one another so

851.7 -> researchers are still searching for a

853.62 -> solution a so-called quantum gravity

855.899 -> that is able to reconcile two of the

858.3 -> most important theories in modern

859.98 -> physics and properly describe how the

862.26 -> Planck error Universe behaved

864.98 -> unfortunately it is a question that

867.48 -> cannot reasonably be tackled by

869.579 -> experimental means considering the vast

872.16 -> energies needed to produce and study the

874.26 -> other Force messenger particles inside

876 -> collider facilities and the elevated

878.82 -> plane that gravity occupies in defining

881.399 -> all of space-time it would take a

883.74 -> particle accelerator roughly the

885.72 -> diameter of our entire solar system to

888.36 -> generate enough power to truly probe

890.639 -> gravity during the extremes of the

893.16 -> Planck era

895.079 -> but this doesn't stand in the way of

897.36 -> theoretical speculation and

899.579 -> extrapolation

901.399 -> one idea suggests that like the other

904.32 -> fundamental forces of nature gravity

906.54 -> also is communicated by a messenger

908.88 -> particle a Quantum unit of gravity that

911.459 -> has come to be known as a graviton but

914.04 -> gravity as a force is so much weaker

915.959 -> than the others than its meager

917.76 -> messenger would be practically

919.139 -> impossible to detect another theory

922.019 -> known as a loop quantum gravity is very

924.66 -> different in this physicists imagine the

927.72 -> smooth and ever-changing geometry of

929.699 -> space-time to be ultimately pixelated on

932.459 -> the very smallest scales and by

934.62 -> rewriting Einstein's equations of

936.54 -> general relativity in terms of lines or

939.3 -> Loops instead of points the calculations

941.82 -> for gravity on a Quantum scale become

944.339 -> much more manageable

945.899 -> and perhaps the leading possible quantum

948.3 -> gravity solution continues to rumble

950.82 -> away in the background of theoretical

952.86 -> physics

954.24 -> String Theory imagines the point-like

957.12 -> particles of traditional physics as

959.279 -> one-dimensional vibrating strings and it

962.339 -> is the vibrational state of the strings

964.86 -> that defines what a particle is as well

967.92 -> as the elusive force of gravity and yet

971.519 -> in order to make the mathematics of

973.139 -> string theory work it becomes necessary

975.36 -> to involve no fewer than 10 or 11

978.6 -> Dimensions many of which would be folded

981.3 -> in on themselves or partitioned into two

984.12 -> or five-dimensional structures known as

986.399 -> brains the fundamental objects of an

988.98 -> even more elusive overarching Theory

991.26 -> with the simple moniker m

995.699 -> and so each of these hypotheses for how

998.639 -> quantum gravity may actually work is

1000.74 -> more mind-bending than the last rooted

1003.199 -> in the abstractions of mathematics and

1005.36 -> almost impossible to visualize

1007.94 -> and yet that is what we are trying to do

1010.519 -> when we cast our minds back to imagine

1013.339 -> the first fraction of a second of our

1015.44 -> universe during the Planck error

1022.1 -> ironically it was in the 1950s when the

1024.86 -> science of quantum mechanics was still

1026.48 -> in its infancy that American theoretical

1029.12 -> physicist John Archibald wheeler

1031.579 -> provided us with a tangible description

1033.679 -> of conditions in that turbulent and

1036.439 -> confusing time he imagined the early

1039.86 -> Universe to be composed of a bubbling a

1043.579 -> dynamic quantum foam

1047.6 -> this quantum foam as wheeler described

1050.419 -> it comes about because of the dynamical

1052.52 -> and unpredictable nature of interactions

1054.799 -> on the quantum scale Heisenberg's

1057.44 -> uncertainty principle seriously

1059.36 -> compromises our ability to Define length

1061.94 -> time or energy at any one point within

1065.179 -> the planck-sized universe and so the

1067.7 -> continuous and coherent space-time that

1069.86 -> we are familiar with today is replaced

1072.26 -> by an inherently unpredictable and

1074.78 -> varying foam-like texture that shifts

1077.78 -> and changes randomly Quantum micro black

1080.539 -> holes and wormholes spring spontaneously

1083.36 -> into existence and then disappear

1085.52 -> Without a Trace without any apparent

1087.62 -> cause and effect in this highly

1090.98 -> energetic super Compact and miniaturized

1093.919 -> Cosmos for the briefest of moments

1097.1 -> Anything Goes

1099.559 -> but after only 100 million trillion

1102.86 -> trillion trillionths of a second the

1105.32 -> widespread unpredictability of the

1107 -> Planck error comes to an end as the

1109.34 -> minuscule growth and cooling of the

1111.2 -> universe Heralds a new epoch

1114.38 -> the universe won't look or behave

1116.299 -> anything like it does today for a while

1119.72 -> but from here on out our current

1121.34 -> theories do at least stand a chance of

1123.919 -> describing just what is going on

1126.88 -> [Music]

1135.44 -> everything in our universe is controlled

1137.72 -> and defined by the four fundamental

1140 -> forces of nature

1142.6 -> imagine turning on your television

1145.48 -> gravity keeps you pinned firmly to the

1148.039 -> seat of your chair holds the Earth's

1149.96 -> atmosphere close to the surface and

1152.24 -> holds the Earth in orbit around our

1153.98 -> nearest star providing a habitable

1156.14 -> environment for your continued existence

1158.299 -> yet despite this gravity is relatively

1161.24 -> weak and you can overcome it with the

1162.919 -> muscles of a single arm to lift the

1165.679 -> remote

1166.88 -> in response to your button press

1168.74 -> invisible infrared light electromagnetic

1171.799 -> radiation beams across the living room

1173.96 -> from the front of the remote the picture

1176.059 -> comes to life in front of you through

1178.16 -> millions of tiny pixels emitting visible

1180.62 -> light another form of electromagnetic

1182.96 -> radiation which travels back across the

1185.24 -> room and into your eyes your eyeballs

1188.059 -> themselves are marvels of evolutionary

1190.4 -> Innovation but they ultimately rely on

1192.86 -> the properties and behaviors of the

1194.6 -> atoms within electrons and nuclei held

1197.66 -> together by the electromagnetic force

1199.94 -> the atomic nuclei themselves are held

1202.58 -> together by the strong nuclear force

1204.919 -> protons and neutrons Force together in

1207.559 -> the center of the atom not only that

1209.78 -> these protons and neutrons are really a

1212.48 -> combination of three smaller subatomic

1214.82 -> particles called quarks which are also

1217.58 -> bonded by the same pull every atom in

1220.88 -> your body in the television in existence

1223.34 -> itself relies upon this Force has your

1227.9 -> eyes focus and you engage with the

1229.58 -> pictures moving on the screen in front

1231.08 -> of you each of the nerves inside your

1233.24 -> brain fire at up to 200 times per second

1236.24 -> all of that coordinated electrical

1238.58 -> potential relies on a proper balance of

1240.74 -> potassium in the body like the other

1243.14 -> elements potassium is held together by

1245.66 -> the strong nuclear force but there is

1248 -> something else at play as well because

1250.22 -> potassium is very slightly radioactive

1253.1 -> and around 5000 potassium atoms

1256.28 -> radioactively Decay every second a Decay

1260.36 -> driven by the weak nuclear force and so

1265.36 -> 150 million kilometers away the core of

1268.52 -> our sun burns with the heat of a stellar

1271.039 -> furnace powered by the fusion of

1273.38 -> hydrogen into helium this incredibly

1276.14 -> powerful reaction is responsible for the

1278.419 -> heat that keeps the Earth habitable and

1280.4 -> on a galactic scale the very elements

1282.86 -> that make up the planet the television

1284.84 -> and you

1286.46 -> and all of this is also reliant on the

1289.94 -> weak nuclear force

1293.9 -> each of these four fundamental forces

1296.179 -> gravity electromagnetism and the strong

1298.7 -> and weak nuclear forces act together to

1302.059 -> shape our experience of the universe and

1304.64 -> so it has been for the majority of our

1306.62 -> cosmos's multi-billion year history but

1310.28 -> in the very first moments of time

1312.039 -> conditions conspired to craft a very

1314.84 -> different set of rules

1316.76 -> during the grand unification Epoch which

1320.299 -> followed the Planck era there were only

1323.419 -> two forces

1325.7 -> but how could this be the case

1328.1 -> the key to visualizing this lies in a

1330.919 -> coin toss flip a coin to decide between

1334.039 -> two equally weighted choices heads for

1336.799 -> one team tales for the other the

1338.72 -> decision is only reached when the coin

1340.46 -> settles after the flip when the energy

1342.5 -> provided by the flexing of thumb and

1344.299 -> forefinger is completely spent and the

1346.7 -> disc comes to rest

1348.5 -> before that point when the coin is still

1350.48 -> imbued with energy and it is spinning

1352.46 -> through the air or across the table it

1354.74 -> is nion impossible to even distinguish

1357.08 -> the two faces the two choices available

1359.84 -> to you there is just a single spinning

1363.02 -> orb with characteristics all of its own

1366.32 -> and this is what we encounter when we

1369.08 -> examine the behaviors of the fundamental

1371.24 -> forces at higher energies the energies

1374.659 -> that were present in the nascent

1377.559 -> Universe increase the temperature

1380.179 -> dramatically and the individual

1382.22 -> properties of the weak nuclear force and

1384.26 -> the electromagnetic force begin to

1386.059 -> weaken and blur into one another we no

1389.12 -> longer see the distinct heads of

1390.74 -> electromagnetism and the Tails of the

1392.96 -> weak Force but rather the spinning

1395.179 -> faceless force of the two United the

1398.299 -> so-called electro-week Force increase

1401.48 -> that energy even further and the

1403.82 -> spinning coin concept again applies to

1406.1 -> the strong force and the electro weak

1408.86 -> with high enough temperatures these two

1411.2 -> blur into a single unified hole a

1414.44 -> process known as Grand unification

1418.58 -> this ultimate unification of three of

1421.159 -> the major fundamental forces gives rise

1423.679 -> to what is known as the electro strong

1426.08 -> force though this tidy spinning coin

1428.72 -> theory of grand unification has yet to

1430.64 -> be definitively proven experimentally

1432.86 -> even though the energetic collisions

1435.2 -> inside particle accelerators can point

1437.419 -> us towards the joining of

1438.799 -> electromagnetism and the weak force it

1441.14 -> would take energies some million million

1443.659 -> times greater for the strong force to

1445.82 -> lose its identity in the same way

1448.64 -> as for with the gravity the fourth

1450.86 -> fundamental force is ever accepted into

1452.84 -> the unified fold that is a question for

1455.96 -> the mysterious and unpredictable Planck

1458.36 -> error and yet another problem for

1460.88 -> contending theories of quantum gravity

1465.52 -> still the grand unification Theory as it

1469.1 -> is known is a strong Contender for

1471.2 -> explaining the workings of the universe

1473.059 -> just after the Planck error for a period

1476.299 -> of time some 10 million times longer

1478.82 -> than the entire Planck error the

1480.86 -> universe expanded and cooled but it is

1483.62 -> Testament to just how dense everything

1485.9 -> started out that even by the end of this

1488.539 -> time the entire observable Cosmos was

1492.08 -> still smaller than a single Quark with a

1495.86 -> latent energy of that Cosmos compressed

1497.9 -> into such a tiny space the temperature

1500.179 -> reached 100

1501.799 -> 000 trillion trillion Kelvin some

1504.14 -> trillion times higher than the Large

1505.94 -> Hadron Collider has ever managed these

1509.299 -> were the conditions for the grand

1511.039 -> unification Epoch ruled by the chimeric

1514.94 -> electro strong force and the bizarre

1517.34 -> interactions that it brought about

1520.039 -> the minuscule Cosmos is filled with

1522.559 -> particles undergoing an extreme identity

1525.14 -> crisis photons transform spontaneously

1528.26 -> into matter antimatter pairs creating

1530.779 -> quarks and leptons but these nascent

1533.659 -> particles are desperately short-lived

1535.7 -> decaying rapidly back into photons

1537.74 -> scarcely as soon as they've formed

1540.02 -> Electro strong messenger bosons only

1542.6 -> serve to complicate the picture helping

1544.76 -> quarks to transform into lepitons

1546.559 -> leptons into quarks matter into

1548.779 -> antimatter and vice versa under the

1551.72 -> chaotic rule of grand unification it is

1554.96 -> a free-for-all of energy and matter of

1558.5 -> particles both virtual and real

1561.34 -> [Music]

1564.62 -> until a trillion trillion trillionth of

1568.039 -> a second after it began

1570.08 -> the penny drops

1572.059 -> temperatures drop to a mere thousand

1574.4 -> trillion trillion degrees rendering it

1576.74 -> cool enough for the strong force to

1578.36 -> break free for two forces to become

1581 -> three and everything to change once

1584.419 -> again

1586.4 -> and yet there is a problem with this

1589.159 -> picture while these theories May

1591.2 -> adequately describe the behavior of

1593.12 -> particles within the earliest moments

1594.98 -> after the big bang they fall short of

1597.799 -> explaining the large-scale cosmos that

1600.74 -> would eventually come to exist

1603.2 -> indeed When comparing the starting

1605.659 -> conditions with the universal end result

1608.659 -> the Big Bang appears

1611.48 -> to be broken

1616.43 -> [Music]

1619.419 -> by July 2022 the iconic James Webb Space

1623.659 -> Telescope was well established in orbit

1625.7 -> around the sun one and a half million

1628.1 -> kilometers out in space it was finally

1631.039 -> ready to begin its scientific operations

1633.62 -> in Earnest but when it focused its 18

1637.34 -> golden mirrors into some of the deepest

1639.559 -> reaches of the observable universe

1642.159 -> scientists were shocked after seeing the

1645.919 -> images returned from the Revolutionary

1647.72 -> telescope American astrophysicist Alison

1650.36 -> Kirkpatrick wrote in the scientific

1652.34 -> journal Nature that she found herself

1654.559 -> lying awake at three in the morning

1656.559 -> wondering if everything she'd ever done

1659.059 -> was wrong

1661.88 -> and within a month these images and

1664.279 -> Kirkpatrick's comments had grown a life

1666.74 -> of Their Own

1670.7 -> the fixed speed of light means that the

1673.1 -> deeper WE peer into space the further

1674.9 -> back in time we are looking and the

1677.059 -> distances corresponding to just 200

1679.52 -> million years after the beginning of

1681.44 -> everything the James Webb Space

1683.179 -> Telescope had seen

1685.539 -> galaxies not only that but these

1688.76 -> galaxies were ordered with much more

1690.38 -> structure than anyone had thought

1692.36 -> possible series of star and Galaxy

1695.059 -> formation had no way to explain it and

1697.94 -> it was this that Kirkpatrick had been so

1700.279 -> concerned about unfortunately soon her

1703.159 -> concerns had been extrapolated to cast

1705.2 -> out on the Big Bang itself with some

1708.2 -> media Outlets claiming that the Next

1709.94 -> Generation telescope had disproved the

1712.58 -> landmark Theory with its very first

1714.62 -> images thankfully those concerns were

1717.38 -> misplaced Kirkpatrick had only been

1719.419 -> concerned about existing theories on

1721.58 -> Galaxy formation not entire Cosmos

1724.46 -> creation the inexplicable structuring of

1727.159 -> early galaxies meant that there was a

1728.779 -> piece missing from our understanding not

1731.24 -> that everything we knew was wrong little

1734.299 -> more than a storm in a cosmic teacup

1738.14 -> and so the Big Bang is safe from that

1740.779 -> quarter for now at least but there's a

1743.96 -> complete explanation of how our modern

1745.58 -> Universe came to be it has been under

1748.039 -> far more severe threat for much longer

1754.22 -> when we look at the large-scale

1755.659 -> structure of the universe as it is today

1757.46 -> there are a number of phenomena that

1759.679 -> don't quite add up

1762.26 -> to begin with the average temperature

1764.419 -> even though Stars Burn at several

1766.58 -> million degrees Celsius and empty space

1768.62 -> Shivers at just a few degrees above

1770.299 -> absolute zero the average temperature

1772.46 -> that we observe in One Direction is

1774.919 -> remarkably similar to any other 2.7

1778.159 -> Kelvin everywhere in the universe all 93

1782.24 -> billion light years in diameter of it

1785.419 -> how if the universe has been gradually

1787.76 -> expanding for nearly 14 billion years

1790.279 -> then how can two points further than 14

1792.919 -> billion light years apart have averaged

1795.2 -> out without breaking the speed of light

1797.96 -> the fact that we see such thermal

1799.7 -> homogeneity now implies that there was

1802.159 -> thermal homogeneity back in the

1803.899 -> universe's earliest moments a fact that

1806.539 -> seems wildly improbable given the nature

1808.94 -> of quantum fluctuations in the

1810.679 -> compactified early Cosmos

1813.86 -> this is known as the homogeneity problem

1817.039 -> or the Horizon problem

1819.919 -> but there is more Einstein's general

1822.62 -> theory of relativity describes how

1824.659 -> massive objects create Curves in

1826.58 -> space-time which then governs the

1828.5 -> movement and evolution of matter within

1830.48 -> that space-time Stars galaxies and black

1833.299 -> holes leave pinches and pock marks in

1835.52 -> the local scale structure of space-time

1837.5 -> but when we zoom out to a larger scale

1840.02 -> these imperfections even out to leave a

1842.6 -> smoother structure which like the

1844.76 -> average temperature of the cosmos seems

1847.159 -> to vary very little

1849.5 -> the Universe on the largest scales seems

1854 -> flat if the overall density of matter in

1856.94 -> the universe is sufficiently great

1858.559 -> space-time will be what's known as

1860.899 -> positively curved bending back on itself

1863.48 -> like the surface of a sphere this means

1865.94 -> that eventually the gravity exerted by

1868.399 -> all the matter in the universe will be

1870.08 -> enough to slow down and eventually

1872.179 -> reverse the trend of expansion

1873.919 -> collapsing the universe back in on

1876.02 -> itself in a so-called big crunch in

1880.34 -> contrast if the overall density is much

1882.32 -> lower it results in a negative curvature

1885.26 -> of space-time bending out in an open

1887.539 -> fashion like the surface of a saddle

1889.88 -> with this geometry gravity never

1892.22 -> overcomes expansion and the cosmos

1894.559 -> continues to grow for eternity which of

1898.039 -> these overall geometries holds true has

1900.559 -> big implications for the future

1902.059 -> evolution of our universe and so it has

1904.399 -> been the preoccupation of astronomers to

1906.62 -> try to measure the overall curvature of

1908.899 -> the cosmos we can see and

1911.559 -> counter-intuitively it appears to be

1914.48 -> completely

1915.86 -> flat

1920.86 -> just like the Horizon problem the

1923.24 -> likelihood of this being the case is

1924.919 -> incredibly small tantamount to tossing a

1927.679 -> coin and having it land perfectly on its

1929.96 -> Edge for obvious reasons this has become

1932.539 -> known as the flatness problem

1935.24 -> and there is one additional problem that

1937.7 -> blights our theories of the cosmos in

1939.74 -> the first trillionth of a second there

1942.26 -> seem to be no magnetic monopoles at all

1946.159 -> all through the universe electrical

1948.559 -> charges exist in positive and negative

1950.899 -> pairs canceling one another out to

1953.48 -> result in a stable neutrally charged

1955.88 -> hole in a similar way magnets are found

1958.52 -> with both North and South Poles with

1960.62 -> magnetic field lines flowing between

1962.299 -> them to produce a stable and balanced

1964.34 -> hole however while it is possible for

1966.74 -> both positive and negative charges to be

1968.84 -> found alone like in isolated protons or

1971.48 -> electrons respectively no such isolated

1974.059 -> poles exist for magnets no matter where

1977.96 -> we look in the cosmos we have yet to

1980.36 -> find a lone monopole without its

1983.36 -> opposite pairing

1987.38 -> and so it was on a December night in

1989.74 -> 1979 while puzzling over the mystery of

1992.659 -> the missing monopoles that theoretical

1994.94 -> physicist Alan Guth struck on a

1998.179 -> remarkable solution

2000.64 -> one that not only addressed his own

2002.799 -> problem but also tackled The Horizon and

2005.5 -> flatness problems as well instead of

2008.019 -> expanding gradually over billions of

2009.88 -> years to the vastness we see today goose

2012.7 -> found a mechanism by which the universe

2014.86 -> could have suddenly and almost

2016.799 -> instantaneously inflated to many many

2020.08 -> times its original size before slowing

2022.84 -> down and continuing in a more linear

2025 -> expansion

2026.38 -> this inflationary period the goose

2028.899 -> proposed would see the universe double

2031.12 -> in size around 90 times in less than a

2034.779 -> trillionth of a second resulting in an

2036.94 -> exponential expansion that would

2038.559 -> fundamentally change the face of the

2040.419 -> cosmos

2041.62 -> because when exponential expansion is at

2044.019 -> play things get very large

2046.899 -> very quickly

2049.54 -> consider folding a gigantic piece of

2051.879 -> paper in half time and time again

2056.619 -> starts out one tenth of a millimeter in

2058.96 -> thickness then the first fold will

2060.94 -> double that to two tenths and the next

2063.399 -> brings it to just under half a

2064.899 -> millimeter a third fold doubles it again

2067.24 -> and now it is about the thickness of a

2069.099 -> fingernail so far so unremarkable but by

2071.98 -> the time you reach Seven Falls the

2074.5 -> single sheet has now reached the

2076.54 -> thickness of an entire notebook tenfolds

2079.54 -> and it will be as thick as your hand is

2081.82 -> wide and the world record for actually

2084.339 -> doing this experiment sits at just 12

2087.28 -> folds when in 2002 an American

2089.859 -> schoolgirl folded a piece of tissue

2091.96 -> paper more than 1.2 kilometers in length

2094.359 -> into a bundle over half a meter thick

2097.18 -> but if it were possible to make and

2099.82 -> handle an even bigger sheet further

2102.58 -> folds would increase the thickness

2104.14 -> astronomically

2106.24 -> 23 folds will make the paper around one

2108.94 -> kilometer thick and thirty folds will be

2111.52 -> enough to get you to space Rising 100

2113.8 -> kilometers from the surface of the Earth

2115.98 -> 42 folds will get you to the moon and 51

2119.14 -> will make it to the Sun 81 folds will

2122.26 -> make the paper as wide as the Andromeda

2124.599 -> galaxy at around 141

2127.18 -> 000 light years across

2129.339 -> and 90 folds equivalent to the 90

2132.339 -> doublings the goose proposed for the

2134.32 -> inflationary period will transform that

2136.96 -> single colossal piece of paper to a

2139.54 -> folded pile bigger than the entire Virgo

2141.88 -> supercluster 130 million light years

2145.72 -> across

2148.3 -> this incredible inflation is what Alan

2151 -> Goose proposed for the entire universe

2153.339 -> in less than a trillionth of a second

2155.56 -> after the confusing turbulence of the

2157.66 -> Planck error and the grand unification

2159.52 -> error the hot hyperdense Cosmos blew up

2162.579 -> to more than an octillion times its

2164.98 -> original size it was this if anything

2167.56 -> that put the bang in the Big Bang the

2170.8 -> universe which one moment had seemed so

2172.78 -> hot energetic and full is now left vast

2176.52 -> vacuous and cold

2179.79 -> [Music]

2181.48 -> though it seems drastic it is indeed An

2184.06 -> Elegant solution for the three problems

2185.859 -> vexing The Big Bang Theory because this

2188.2 -> inflation allows us to entertain the

2190.24 -> possibility that the immense Universe we

2192.4 -> see isn't actually all there is it is

2195.46 -> merely a bubble of observable universe

2197.92 -> whose size is defined by the speed of

2200.02 -> light the amount of time that has passed

2202.06 -> and the expansion that has taken place

2203.74 -> since the beginning of time

2206.2 -> thanks to inflation and subsequent

2208.42 -> expansion our observable bubble is some

2210.64 -> 93 billion light years in diameter but

2213.52 -> it is still merely a fraction of the

2215.98 -> universe as a whole and it is in this

2219.22 -> unseeable extent that the answers to our

2222.46 -> problems can be found

2225.16 -> The Horizon problem of thermal

2226.78 -> homogeneity is only a problem if the

2228.64 -> homogeneity we see applies to the entire

2231.22 -> universe but inflation allows the

2234.579 -> compactor the universe to contain

2236.26 -> extreme thermal variations which are

2238.839 -> then flung far apart from one another

2240.579 -> during exponential expansion our local

2244.06 -> patch of observable universe merely

2246.16 -> represents one small part of the whole

2248.2 -> which was in thermal equilibrium with

2250.9 -> itself before inflation happened and may

2254.079 -> be wildly different from other parts

2256.42 -> that we cannot see similarly the

2259.24 -> flatness problem of space-time curvature

2261.339 -> is only a puzzling coincidence if the

2263.68 -> flatness we see applies to the entire

2266.14 -> universe but if we are only seeing a

2268.599 -> tiny fraction of the hole then it is

2270.64 -> impossible to say whether it does or not

2273.88 -> it could be a matter of perspective from

2277.359 -> the seashore an ocean Horizon appears

2279.64 -> flat but it is only when we fly far

2282.339 -> above the surface perceiving more of the

2284.74 -> earth that we see it is in fact curved

2287.619 -> in reality The Wider Cosmos may be

2290.74 -> positively curved negatively curved or a

2293.92 -> twisted combination of both but we are

2296.92 -> unable to see past our own Cosmic Shore

2301.26 -> and finally the absence of magnetic

2304 -> monopoles is only a problem if we assume

2306.46 -> they are missing from the universe as a

2309.099 -> whole but if they existed in the early

2310.96 -> Universe in the quantity predicted by

2313.06 -> our current models then exponential

2315.46 -> inflation would have seen them spread

2317.56 -> apart from one another until they were

2319.359 -> distributed to roughly one per

2321.64 -> observable universe and when we are

2324.4 -> looking for a singular monopole within a

2326.5 -> sphere 93 billion light years across

2328.72 -> it's Little Wonder we haven't found it

2331.359 -> yet

2332.32 -> foreign

2335.76 -> is now securely part of our

2338.079 -> understanding of the earliest moments of

2339.82 -> the universe and cosmologists have spent

2342.099 -> the 40 years since Alan Guth revelation

2344.14 -> of figuring out the mechanism by which a

2346.48 -> universe can so suddenly and so

2348.339 -> drastically blow up the timing of this

2352 -> dramatic phase coincides with the energy

2354.099 -> drop and cooling that saw the end of the

2356.38 -> grand unification of fundamental forces

2358.54 -> and the emergence of the strong nuclear

2360.76 -> force it is theorized by some scientists

2363.52 -> that the decay of the ex boson messenger

2366.099 -> particles that carried the electro

2367.78 -> strong force created a strong inflation

2370.599 -> field carried by a new messenger called

2373.839 -> the inflaton this overwhelming new

2376.96 -> inflation energy drove Universal

2379.72 -> exponential expansion which saw Quantum

2382.18 -> scale irregularities almost instantly

2384.7 -> scaled up to large-scale structure

2387.119 -> transient Quantum fluctuations becoming

2390.099 -> huge regions of over density and energy

2392.26 -> that would provide the seeds for

2394.06 -> Galactic clusters and superclusters in

2396.64 -> the modern universe

2400.5 -> all of this expansion inevitably cooled

2403.54 -> and emptied the cosmos leading to a 100

2406.66 -> 000 fold drop in average energy levels

2408.96 -> scientists are as yet unsure of why

2411.579 -> exactly inflation stopped but when it

2413.74 -> did the inflaton field and particle

2416.32 -> decade away pouring much of that energy

2418.78 -> back into the universe in a phase known

2422.26 -> as reheating and it's this that allows

2425.38 -> for the decisive creation of matter

2428.619 -> and now in a larger and roomier Cosmos

2431.74 -> the laws of nature are approaching

2433.9 -> something that we can finally understand

2435.96 -> and model this is called the electro

2439.839 -> weak Epoch and it lasts until about a

2442.78 -> trillionth of a second after the big

2444.76 -> bang There are corks and leptons Mata

2447.4 -> and antimatter all ruled by gravity the

2450.46 -> strong nuclear force and the chimeric

2452.92 -> electro weak Force but temperatures and

2455.32 -> energies are still far too high for the

2457.72 -> strong force to have any real effect on

2459.64 -> the supercharged particles in this

2461.94 -> post-inflationary Maelstrom similarly

2464.68 -> the electro weak Force has little hold

2466.96 -> on the matter energy interactions and

2469.54 -> while gravity may have pervaded the

2471.339 -> universe since its beginning there is

2473.44 -> one major component still missing which

2476.2 -> renders it all but powerless

2478.72 -> until these newly formed particles are

2481.839 -> granted Mass they remain unruly and

2485.92 -> ungoverned it will take another energy

2489.22 -> drop and another cosmological

2491.26 -> transformation before we reach a

2493.78 -> universe we begin to recognize as our

2497.26 -> own

2506.2 -> symmetry is everywhere anywhere we look

2510.16 -> in nature we find balance regularity and

2513.339 -> geometric Harmony but in our own bodies

2515.8 -> or the bodies of all animals Great and

2518.32 -> Small we are bilaterally symmetric

2520.78 -> mirrored down the center and perceive

2523.119 -> the greatest beauty in those whose

2524.92 -> symmetry is the most perfect many

2527.32 -> creatures share our bilateral symmetry

2529.359 -> too from the greatest whale to the

2531.64 -> lowliest worm and if not mirrored

2533.98 -> twofold other animals like starfish and

2536.38 -> sea urchins favor five spokes of radial

2539.44 -> symmetry scientists have found that

2541.78 -> Evolution has a clear preference for

2543.76 -> these balanced symmetric forms not least

2546.579 -> because they can be constructed from

2548.079 -> much more simplistic instructions than

2550.119 -> other more complex and non-repeating

2552.52 -> geometries and it is mathematical

2554.98 -> algorithmic Simplicity that underlies

2557.56 -> the symmetries found throughout the

2559.54 -> natural non-living World in science

2562.54 -> symmetry has a much wider meaning than

2564.64 -> its day-to-day use it indicates that

2567.16 -> something is the same something that

2569.5 -> does not change whatever happens from

2572.5 -> the laws of physics to the conservation

2574.3 -> of energy and momentum the universe is

2577 -> inherently symmetrical positive charges

2579.7 -> are balanced with negative ones some

2581.68 -> particles spin clockwise others spin

2584.02 -> counterclockwise and if you measure the

2586.359 -> strength of gravity on Alpha Centauri

2588.52 -> you will get the same result as in our

2590.8 -> own solar system and yet the universe is

2594.4 -> not perfectly symmetrical just like the

2596.98 -> human body when examined more closely as

2599.319 -> the heart shifted to one side there are

2601.78 -> also flaws in the perfect balance of the

2604.78 -> cosmos there are some particles that

2607.18 -> never spin clockwise and others that

2609.46 -> never spin counterclockwise there is an

2611.68 -> imbalance in the amount of matter and

2613.599 -> antimatter there are things that

2615.099 -> electric Fields can do that magnetic

2617.14 -> fields cannot despite the two being

2619.24 -> notionally equivalent and many of these

2622.3 -> imbalances are key to the functioning of

2625.72 -> reality

2627.099 -> but it did not start this way

2631.599 -> indeed for the first trillionth of a

2633.579 -> second or so cosmologists believe that

2635.74 -> everything was perfectly symmetric there

2638.92 -> was balance

2640.9 -> but that all changed with the final

2643 -> separation of the forces and the

2644.98 -> emergence of something that would come

2646.3 -> to influence much of existence

2649.06 -> Mass

2650.5 -> just as dropping temperatures Herald

2652.66 -> phased changes in water from Vapor to

2655.3 -> liquid to solid ice fundamentally

2658.06 -> changing its properties at each

2659.74 -> transition and reducing its symmetry so

2662.56 -> the dropping temperatures in the young

2664.359 -> Cosmos brought about phase changes in

2667.599 -> the energy and matter that filled it as

2671.26 -> the four fundamental forces finally

2673.66 -> fully split and crystallized as separate

2676.599 -> entities a new era dawned the Quark

2680.92 -> error defined for the first time by the

2684.579 -> interactions of matter

2690.4 -> the biggest single object yet discovered

2693.099 -> in our universe is probably the

2695.56 -> hypergiant star uy scooty

2699.46 -> with a diameter some 1700 times larger

2702.339 -> than our sun if it sat at the center of

2704.5 -> our solar system its Outer Edge would

2706.72 -> sit just beyond the orbit of Jupiter and

2709.839 -> yet it like all stars is composed almost

2712.42 -> entirely of some of the smallest things

2715.119 -> to be found in the universe individual

2717.94 -> atoms of the lightweight elements

2719.859 -> hydrogen and helium hydrogen is the

2722.74 -> smallest of the atoms which themselves

2724.599 -> were once considered the smallest thing

2727.119 -> possible their very name derives from

2729.46 -> the Greek word for unsplittable but we

2731.92 -> now know thanks to Revolutions in atomic

2734.26 -> theory throughout the early 20th century

2736.24 -> that atoms are eminent splitable a fact

2740.14 -> which is given rise to some of the most

2742.24 -> devastating weapons in human history

2745.42 -> hydrogen and helium for all their

2747.579 -> Simplicity are composite particles of

2750.16 -> protons neutrons and electrons which can

2753.7 -> be isolated and manipulated with

2756.04 -> relative ease but even these are not the

2759.4 -> smallest fundamental particles there are

2761.619 -> protons and neutrons are themselves

2764.079 -> Composites of even smaller units called

2766.72 -> quarks whose various properties

2768.88 -> alongside those of electrons ultimately

2771.4 -> govern the characteristics and behavior

2773.8 -> of everything including

2776.94 -> uy scooty

2781.78 -> the search for the fundamental particles

2783.88 -> of matter has been a guiding quest for

2785.8 -> physicists for some 200 years

2787.98 -> experiments to crack open smaller and

2790.24 -> smaller particles to reveal what lies

2792.46 -> inside require vast amounts of energy

2795.04 -> which can only be obtained by

2796.839 -> accelerating those particles to blinding

2799.119 -> speeds and then smashing them into one

2801.4 -> another in particle colliders examining

2804.16 -> the wreckage of such collisions we can

2806.079 -> piece together a full picture of the

2808.48 -> building blocks of our universe this

2810.819 -> picture which has come to be known as

2812.44 -> the standard model of particle physics

2814.66 -> is theoretically all we need to explain

2817.18 -> why everything looks the way it does in

2819.76 -> the cosmos today normal matter as we

2822.76 -> have seen is composed of protons and

2825.099 -> neutrons which are collectively known as

2827.8 -> hadrons but they are themselves composed

2830.859 -> of a combination of quarks each with

2833.5 -> distinct characteristics such as mass

2835.599 -> charge spin as well as another property

2838.96 -> called color an arbitrary name which has

2841.78 -> no relation to color but helps to

2843.88 -> explain how they bind together in groups

2846.64 -> a positively charged proton is made from

2849.22 -> two up quarks and one down Quark while

2851.92 -> an uncharged Neutron is two downs and an

2854.98 -> up but there are other flavors of Quark

2857.14 -> out there with esoteric names like

2859.3 -> strange charm top and bottom which

2863.02 -> combine to form more exotic composite

2865.119 -> hadron particles which are scarcely ever

2867.46 -> seen outside of physics experiments

2872.98 -> and so despite smashing hadrons together

2875.74 -> in these experiments with ever

2877.359 -> increasing Force physicists have found

2880.06 -> no hint that quarks are made of anything

2882.46 -> smaller they truly seem to be the bottom

2885.52 -> of the rabbit hole meanwhile the

2887.92 -> electrons that orbit Atomic nuclei

2889.96 -> appear similarly indivisible they are a

2893.02 -> kind of particle known as a lepton and

2895.66 -> while all normal matter makes do with

2897.579 -> the negatively charged electron there

2899.74 -> are exotic varieties to be found inside

2901.78 -> alkylos muons Tau lepitons and several

2905.14 -> varieties of neutrino can all be found

2907.42 -> in the wreckage of particle collision

2910.26 -> and so our standard model consists of 12

2913.92 -> fundamental unsplittable particles of

2916.9 -> matter six types of quark and six types

2920.44 -> of lepiton in addition to antimatter

2922.3 -> counterparts of each of these and the

2924.4 -> messenger particles of the fundamental

2926.619 -> forces photons for the electromagnetic

2929.44 -> force gluons for the strong nuclear

2931.96 -> force and w and z bosons for the weak

2935.38 -> nuclear force if a virtual particle

2938.319 -> exists to communicate gravity through

2940.42 -> space-time then it still evades

2942.819 -> detection so for now only four Gage

2946.119 -> bosons joined the particles of matter to

2948.64 -> describe everything within the universe

2950.98 -> today

2951.92 -> [Music]

2954.16 -> at least almost everything

2958.28 -> [Music]

2959.619 -> there is one crucial missing piece to

2962.859 -> our model so far

2964.839 -> and that is Mass

2968.22 -> every element in the universe from

2971.02 -> hydrogen to plutonium has its own

2973.26 -> characteristic Mass corresponding mainly

2976.18 -> to the number of protons and neutrons

2978.22 -> within its nucleus so it follows that

2981.819 -> the majority of an atom's mass comes

2983.98 -> from those protons and to neutrons but

2987.099 -> when we peer down smaller and smaller to

2990.04 -> find the ultimate source of that mass

2991.92 -> that is not what we see for it turns out

2995.98 -> that a proton weighs in at considerably

2998.68 -> more than the sum of its parts the

3001.44 -> fundamental particles at the heart of a

3003.359 -> proton are the three quarks but the

3006.3 -> masses of these amount to just nine

3008.64 -> percent of the protons overall Mass the

3012.18 -> rest comes from energy stored up inside

3014.16 -> that nucleus from the intrinsic

3016.319 -> relationship between energy and mass

3018.24 -> that Einstein identified with his famed

3021 -> E equals MC squared equation and from

3024 -> the bizarre Quantum interactions of

3025.68 -> gluons the mediators of the strong

3027.72 -> nuclear Force so when we reconsider the

3031.14 -> masses of every piece of normal matter

3032.88 -> in the universe more than 90 percent of

3035.52 -> it doesn't actually come from the stuff

3037.8 -> of matter at all but from the latent

3040.619 -> energy and empty space within but quarks

3044.46 -> do still have mass something separate

3046.8 -> something different to this energy and

3049.2 -> the reason for this was a mystery for a

3051.66 -> long time photons and gluons get by just

3054.42 -> fine without mass at all electrons and

3056.7 -> neutrinos have even less than the

3058.559 -> smallest Quark while the W boson carrier

3061.319 -> of the weak Force weighs in at some

3063.359 -> forty thousand times heavier than an up

3066.359 -> Quark heavier even than an entire iron

3069.78 -> atom so what causes this incredible

3072.599 -> disparity in Mass

3074.46 -> why to particles have mass at all

3082.26 -> this was the question that plagued

3084.24 -> British theoretical physicist Peter

3086.22 -> Higgs in the 1960s while teaching and

3088.68 -> researching at the University of

3090 -> Edinburgh as a solution to the problem

3092.16 -> he suggested that all particles first

3094.68 -> came to existence in the universe

3096.66 -> without any mass at all and that at some

3100.8 -> point within the first Split Second a

3103.68 -> new kind of energy field emerged and

3105.839 -> permeated all of space-time giving the

3108.66 -> various particles the property of mass

3112.46 -> this Higgs field as it became known

3115.319 -> would be communicated by its own

3117 -> quantized messenger particle the Higgs

3119.579 -> boson which would sit alongside the

3121.74 -> other 16 particles of the standard model

3123.78 -> and play a major role in describing the

3126.18 -> behaviors and interactions of matter in

3128.22 -> the universe and yet even though Higgs

3131.46 -> theory was sound it would take nearly 50

3134.28 -> years to finally find The elusive Higgs

3138.059 -> boson in the meantime in order to

3140.7 -> bolster support for this expensive and

3142.74 -> seemingly esoteric search the UK

3145.319 -> Minister for science promised in 1993 to

3148.559 -> buy a bottle of champagne for the best

3150.599 -> analogy to explain the actions and

3152.64 -> importance of the Higgs field to the

3154.92 -> general public despite various

3157.2 -> suggestions featuring pools of syrup

3159.24 -> prisms and electric Fields it was

3161.88 -> physicist David Miller from University

3164.22 -> College London who ultimately claimed

3166.68 -> the prize with the description that

3169.2 -> focused on a busy cocktail party

3173.05 -> [Music]

3175.579 -> at this party he said everyone is

3178.619 -> happily chatting among themselves and a

3180.96 -> normal person is able to move through

3182.94 -> the room with relative ease but when a

3186.119 -> more popular figure enters the room they

3188.4 -> attract attention from the party goers

3190.26 -> everyone wants to talk to them and their

3192.599 -> progress through the room is slowed in

3195.54 -> this way the room full of partygoers

3197.64 -> represents the Higgs field and the

3199.74 -> popular figure is a particle that has

3201.839 -> been imbued with mass for those too far

3204.54 -> away to see the influential person a

3207.18 -> rumor passes around the room as people

3208.98 -> come together to discuss their arrival

3210.98 -> this physical Rippling through the crowd

3214.02 -> can be thought of as the messenger Higgs

3217.26 -> boson

3219.24 -> while the analogy isn't perfect it has

3221.64 -> stood the test of time and time was what

3224.339 -> was needed in what ultimately proved to

3226.38 -> be a frustrating search for something

3228.18 -> akin to a needle in a haystack two of

3231.78 -> the most powerful particle accelerators

3233.579 -> the tevatron had Fermi lab in America

3235.74 -> had the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in

3238.38 -> Europe smashed particles and searched

3240.72 -> wreckage for years the problem was

3243.48 -> although Peter Higgs had theorized the

3245.88 -> field and boson existed his theories

3248.52 -> said nothing about what energies would

3250.619 -> be needed to manifest them all the

3252.54 -> properties of the particles once they

3254.28 -> were found so like searching for a

3256.68 -> needle in a haystack when you had no

3258.839 -> idea what a needle even looked like

3262.5 -> eventually though in 2012 experiments at

3265.619 -> the Large Hadron Collider achieved this

3268.02 -> seemingly impossible feat scientists

3270.66 -> confirmed they had in fact found the

3273.059 -> Higgs boson and in doing so proved the

3275.76 -> existence and action of the Higgs field

3278.3 -> once and for all the particle had earned

3282.119 -> its place in the standard model and the

3284.4 -> field its role in the evolution of the

3287.16 -> early universe

3289.319 -> a trillionth of a second after the big

3291.3 -> bang the electro weak Force splits

3293.7 -> catastrophically in two ending the

3295.859 -> perfect symmetry of the universe as the

3297.9 -> W and B bosons that carried Decay into

3301.02 -> the photons of the electromagnetic force

3303.359 -> and the w and z bosons of the weak

3306.24 -> nuclear force but this is only the

3309.24 -> beginning of the Symmetry breaking the

3311.579 -> emergence of the Higgs field around this

3313.68 -> time imbues the real and virtual

3316.079 -> particles that were created

3317.579 -> spontaneously during inflation and

3319.859 -> Electro weak splitting with mass the wnz

3323.4 -> bosons become heavyweights the quarks

3325.8 -> and leptons get their masses according

3327.66 -> to their flavor and type or the photon

3330.42 -> and gluon continue as massless and

3333 -> unbounded by the Higgs as they did

3335.099 -> before

3336.96 -> as the Quark error becomes fully

3339.18 -> realized by a billionth of a second

3340.92 -> after the big bang the universe is

3343.859 -> finally filled with all of the

3345.839 -> ingredients the characteristic particles

3348.059 -> and the characteristic forces needed to

3351 -> make stars planets and us

3354.18 -> Quark glue on plasma that permeates the

3357 -> inflated Cosmos is the primordial soup

3359.579 -> from which all structures in the

3361.559 -> universe will be made

3370.079 -> our universe is full of incredible

3372.54 -> variety and diversity there are stars

3375.66 -> that burn hot and fast exploding

3378 -> catastrophically after scarcely a

3380.16 -> million years and others that Sizzle

3382.619 -> away slowly unchanging for trillions of

3385.92 -> years there are multitudes of planets

3388.5 -> Giant Gas worlds scorched and Barren

3391.26 -> Rocky worlds and occasionally green

3393.599 -> watery life-ready worlds and on those

3397.26 -> worlds that do host life like Earth

3400.02 -> there is every kind of life form you can

3402.42 -> imagine from Tiny bacteria who breathe

3404.819 -> sulfur or methane to self-aware and

3407.339 -> cognizant Apes that build structures and

3409.98 -> telescopes

3411.24 -> in the potentially infinite extent of

3413.76 -> the cosmos There is almost infinite

3415.98 -> scope for variety but there are also

3418.74 -> certain facets of reality that are

3421.02 -> immutable and constant regardless of

3424.02 -> where you are in the cosmos or How You

3427.02 -> observe them

3430.44 -> these so-called constants of nature have

3433.44 -> been revealed one by one as scientists

3436.02 -> expand our understanding of how the

3438.48 -> universe behaves time and time again we

3441.42 -> stumble across seemingly magical numbers

3444.2 -> unrelated to any other physical law or

3447.54 -> phenomenon like the speed of light

3449.46 -> through a vacuum often considered the

3451.619 -> absolute speed limit for anything

3453.119 -> traveling through the universe it is

3456.5 -> 2.99792 times 10 to the 8 meters per

3459.72 -> second or the universal constant of

3462.359 -> gravitation which describes how strongly

3464.76 -> two objects will be attracted to one

3466.44 -> another due to gravity it is

3470 -> 6.67384 times 10 to the minus 11 meters

3473.4 -> per second squared per kilogram and the

3476.52 -> list goes on there are precise and

3478.26 -> definable constraints relating the

3480 -> energy of particles to their temperature

3481.619 -> for the strength of magnetic fields

3483.54 -> produced by electric currents and for

3485.52 -> the strength of an electric field that

3487.26 -> forms in response to electric charges

3489.359 -> less obvious seriously but still

3491.579 -> importantly the masses of the

3493.559 -> fundamental particles are also set at

3495.839 -> constant but seemingly arbitrary amounts

3498.54 -> affect that even the Higgs mechanism is

3501.18 -> unable to account for and so why should

3504.059 -> these natural relationships have these

3506.22 -> precise values

3510.18 -> it is a problem that vexed even the

3512.579 -> great physicist Richard Feynman when he

3515.099 -> considered what is known as the fine

3517.44 -> structure constant that essentially

3519.72 -> describes the strength of

3520.859 -> electromagnetic forces between particles

3523.26 -> defining the chances that an electron

3526.02 -> will absorb a photon its value is a

3528.42 -> little over 137 but there is no link

3531.24 -> between it and any other physical law no

3534.42 -> reason for it not to be 12 or 135 or

3538.4 -> 3015 the fact that it is 137 rather than

3543 -> any other number is crucially important

3544.92 -> for the overall state of the universe if

3547.38 -> it were much larger or smaller then it

3549.72 -> would seriously affect the stability of

3551.819 -> protons throughout the cosmos meaning

3553.859 -> that matter would have a hard time

3555.54 -> staying together and the same goes for

3557.7 -> most of the other natural constants if

3560.46 -> gravitation were weaker than it is the

3562.619 -> universe would be filled with just an

3564.24 -> ever-thinning soup of hydrogen gas if it

3567.119 -> was stronger then all matter would be

3568.92 -> drawn into black holes or violent

3570.839 -> short-lived Stars leaving no room for

3573.48 -> planets and Life to form the many

3575.94 -> constants of nature may seem arbitrary

3578.099 -> but they are also finely tuned to allow

3580.619 -> for the varied and diverse Universe we

3583.319 -> find ourselves Within

3585.32 -> [Music]

3586.799 -> but why we still don't know

3591 -> is it just a lucky coincidence or the

3593.64 -> Hallmark of a creator with their hands

3595.44 -> on the dials or as many scientists

3598.079 -> suppose is it that our universe is

3600 -> merely one of a multitude all created

3602.579 -> with different starting conditions and

3604.68 -> different values for those fundamental

3606.54 -> constants the vast majority having

3609 -> resulted in failed Barren universes and

3612.059 -> only those in which the values are just

3613.92 -> right able to culture cosmological

3616.26 -> variety longevity and consequently

3620.099 -> us

3621.78 -> whatever the reason this fine tuning is

3625.26 -> already hugely important in the opening

3628.14 -> seconds of existence

3632.48 -> by the time a billionth of a second has

3634.92 -> passed since the Big Bang the universe

3636.9 -> has been filled with an astonishing

3638.579 -> abundance of quarks leptons and virtual

3641.099 -> particles but temperatures and energies

3643.38 -> were still too high for any of these

3645.359 -> fundamental particles to interact

3647.16 -> meaningfully with one another

3648.74 -> temperatures drop and by a millionth of

3651.24 -> a second after the big bang the universe

3653.28 -> is a mere one trillion degrees Celsius

3655.4 -> gluons and quarks finally slow down

3658.26 -> their frantic vibration allowing them to

3660.66 -> interact with one another for the very

3662.52 -> first time as we have seen protons and

3665.4 -> neutrons are composite particles each

3667.74 -> made from three quarks but the component

3670.2 -> parts of a proton two up Corks And A

3672.66 -> Down Quark are not natural bedfellows

3675.24 -> the op quarks both have positive charge

3677.46 -> and like charges repel the closer the

3680.579 -> like charges get the more strongly they

3682.68 -> reject one another so it takes the

3684.42 -> assembled might of the strongest force

3686.4 -> of all the strong nuclear force mediated

3688.92 -> by gluons to hold them together into a

3691.859 -> stable hadron particle but it turns out

3695.16 -> the internal anatomy of a proton is even

3697.98 -> stranger than we might imagine not only

3700.619 -> is the majority of the mass made up of

3702.66 -> energy and Quantum Dynamics but the

3705.059 -> composition of the matter isn't as

3706.799 -> constant as we might imagine

3708.9 -> sometimes one of the typical quarks

3711.119 -> inside a proton can spontaneously

3713.339 -> shapeshift into a charm quark and its

3715.92 -> antimatter counterpart the

3717.54 -> transformation is extremely short-lived

3719.4 -> however and the charm corks quickly

3721.319 -> recombine but it means that protons are

3724.079 -> ultimately a constantly changing blur of

3726.96 -> the normal quarks known as valence

3728.94 -> quarks as well as gluons and charm

3731.64 -> quarks since both the gluons and the

3734.16 -> transient charms can be considered

3735.839 -> virtual particles that means that the

3738.359 -> vast majority of a proton as much as 99

3741.119 -> percent is actually made up of particles

3744.119 -> that don't really exist

3747.839 -> the internal workings of protons and

3749.76 -> neutrons may be truly bizarre but in the

3752.099 -> first millionth of a second of the

3753.54 -> universe they are becoming an Ever more

3755.28 -> prominent part of the universe's makeup

3757.68 -> however thanks to the effect of the weak

3760.02 -> force in this hot dense plasma newly

3762.54 -> formed protons can easily change

3764.52 -> identity to become neutrons and vice

3766.859 -> versa it's only as the temperature drops

3769.079 -> even further as the universe is

3771.059 -> approaching one second old that this

3773.579 -> particular Quirk of the weak Force

3775.26 -> becomes ineffective and the protons and

3777.48 -> neutrons eventually slow their switching

3780.119 -> during this so-called freeze out the

3783.599 -> hadron's choose an identity once and for

3786.48 -> all

3787.52 -> foreign

3789.299 -> and it is when this happens that the

3791.76 -> seemingly arbitrary fine-tuned constants

3793.859 -> of nature in this case the masses of the

3796.2 -> up and down quarks have their first real

3798.96 -> opportunity to shape the future of our

3801.78 -> Cosmos

3804.48 -> because down quarks are heavier than

3806.52 -> their up cousins and neutrons contain

3809.04 -> two downs the mass of a neutron is very

3811.68 -> slightly greater than the two upper

3813.78 -> containing proton so was the final

3815.94 -> identity switches take place in an

3817.98 -> ever-cooling Cosmos the downhill energy

3820.559 -> slope from heavy Neutron to lighter

3822.599 -> proton is favored over the

3824.339 -> energy-intensive hall in the opposite

3826.319 -> direction it is this very slight Mass

3829.079 -> difference that ultimately results in an

3831.42 -> imbalance in the number of protons to

3833.339 -> neutrons in the universe from that point

3835.619 -> on with roughly seven protons to every

3838.559 -> Neutron and this it transpires has been

3842.099 -> an important ratio for the formation of

3844.559 -> the universe as we know it

3846.9 -> protons are the basis for hydrogen and

3849.119 -> helium the fuel for stars and the

3851.099 -> building blocks for all other heavier

3852.9 -> elements in the universe the abundance

3855.299 -> of these charged particles over the

3857.099 -> uncharged neutrons is what allows for

3859.38 -> Elemental interactions leading to

3861.24 -> chemistry and biology if things had

3863.88 -> started out differently if the downcore

3866.04 -> had been allocated a slightly lower Mass

3868.02 -> during the fine-tuning of our reality

3870 -> than the universe we see today would be

3873 -> very different if neutrons weighed less

3875.46 -> than protons then it would have been

3876.9 -> those that were favored during freeze

3878.7 -> out with more uncharged neutrons than

3881.04 -> protons there is a limit to what

3882.839 -> chemistry could reasonably be

3884.28 -> accomplished hydrogen consisting of only

3886.44 -> a proton with no neutrons in attendance

3888.9 -> wouldn't be stable for long periods of

3891.059 -> time some of the heavier protons could

3893.339 -> have been saved by binding to neutrons

3895.38 -> before decaying away creating atoms of

3897.839 -> helium but helium is often considered

3899.819 -> the most inert of all the elements it is

3902.28 -> inherently stable but unwilling to react

3904.5 -> between this and the overabundance of

3906.9 -> generally unreactive neutrons it would

3909.18 -> be hard to imagine how nuclear fusion

3911.64 -> could work we would be left with a cold

3914.7 -> Dark Universe with no stars no galaxies

3918.299 -> no planets and certainly now us

3924.119 -> foreign

3924.85 -> [Music]

3926.839 -> we can therefore be thankful for the

3929.76 -> universe's inexplicable leaning towards

3932.16 -> protons over neutrons but this isn't the

3935.819 -> only imbalance that becomes baked into

3937.92 -> the cosmos around this point in its

3940.26 -> Evolution there is also a mysterious but

3944.16 -> fortuitous lack of antimatter

3953.099 -> one day in the future as WE peer into

3955.799 -> the sky we may be looking in the right

3958.26 -> corner at the right time to see an alien

3961.2 -> civilization

3962.88 -> destroy itself

3965.88 -> scarcely more dramatic than the subtle

3967.92 -> brightening of one of the faintest stars

3969.78 -> in the black but representing an

3971.88 -> energetic explosion from a weapon

3974.099 -> powerful enough to level an entire world

3977.94 -> history tells us that disagreement and

3980.099 -> Discord is a common theme among Earth

3982.38 -> civilizations and there's no reason to

3984.359 -> believe this wouldn't be the case

3985.68 -> elsewhere in the galaxy and so on a

3989.16 -> warring alien world as on Earth efforts

3991.799 -> to Prevail over the enemy lead to an

3994.319 -> arms race from sharpened points to

3996.66 -> explosive projectiles Nano Machinery to

3999.24 -> atomic bombs the struggle for the most

4001.7 -> destructive Weaponry goes on

4004.339 -> these Advanced extraterrestrials are

4006.799 -> still not satisfied and soon turn their

4008.96 -> attention to an even more powerful

4010.819 -> source of latent energy with greater

4013.16 -> technological prowess than Humanity they

4015.319 -> have learned to produce and isolate

4017.18 -> particles of antimatter holding them in

4019.88 -> a vacuum suspended by electromagnetic

4022.16 -> forces until it is time for them to be

4025.22 -> deployed but they do not need vast

4027.619 -> quantities of fuel or any sort of

4029.66 -> trigger for the moment that antimatter

4031.819 -> comes into contact with the normal

4033.5 -> matter that prevails on their home world

4035.539 -> the particles will annihilate together

4038.02 -> destroying themselves and releasing vast

4040.819 -> amounts of energy just one gram of

4043.7 -> antimatter releases as much energy as a

4046.4 -> traditional nuclear weapon with some 90

4048.799 -> kilograms of fuel and as the arms race

4051.799 -> goes on the stockpiles grow whether it

4055.099 -> is used in Anger confusion or simply by

4057.5 -> accident the detonation of this

4059.299 -> antimatter Weaponry occurs Knight turns

4063.2 -> to day in

4065.02 -> scorching winds raise entire cities

4067.579 -> destroying both warring factions and all

4070.16 -> other life on the planet the entire

4072.559 -> world is transformed for centuries

4075.68 -> to come

4077.539 -> such is the devastating possibility of

4080.299 -> antimatter coming into contact with

4082.7 -> matter

4083.96 -> and yet we are surrounded by it every

4086.599 -> day

4090.68 -> it was the English physicist Paul De Rak

4092.9 -> who in 1928 first predicted the

4095.24 -> existence of antimatter

4097.1 -> working to integrate Einstein's theory

4099.08 -> of special relativity with the

4100.64 -> relatively new science of quantum

4102.199 -> mechanics he realized his equations

4104.179 -> applied not only to negatively charged

4106.46 -> electrons but also to positively charged

4109.4 -> equivalence thereby predicting a

4111.679 -> particle that was entirely new to

4113.54 -> science an anti-electron or positron

4117.679 -> four years later an independent American

4120.08 -> physicist Carl Anderson actually

4122.6 -> detected this elusive particle in a

4125.12 -> rudimentary instrument called a cloud

4126.98 -> chamber with the existence of antimatter

4129.14 -> now proven physicists turned their

4131.239 -> attention to other antimatter particles

4133.819 -> in the 1950s the bevatron accelerator in

4136.699 -> California succeeded in detecting the

4138.739 -> first anti-proton and the first

4140.48 -> anti-neutron and in 1995 scientists

4143.96 -> finally assembled an anti-hydrogen atom

4148.1 -> now we recognize antimatter in a wide

4150.739 -> variety of settings from supernovae and

4153.319 -> black hole Jets to the radioactive decay

4155.719 -> of potassium in a banana producing a

4158.12 -> positron roughly every 75 minutes

4161.239 -> so antimatter may not be confined to

4163.58 -> futuristic sci-fi settings but it is

4166.52 -> still hugely outweighed by normal matter

4169.4 -> in the universe

4174.64 -> based on the notable absence of

4176.9 -> annihilation signatures physicists

4179.179 -> believe that there can be no more than

4181.04 -> one antimatter particle for every

4183.199 -> quadrillion matter particles within the

4185.6 -> Milky Way and this is just as well

4187.94 -> because if there were equal quantities

4189.739 -> of both then Annihilation would have

4192.199 -> resulted in the ultimate destruction of

4194.48 -> all particles leaving nothing with which

4197.06 -> to build stars and planets

4199.28 -> but the question of how this lucky

4201.26 -> imbalance came about is one that still

4203.9 -> troubles physicists could it be another

4206.42 -> Quirk of fine-tuning

4208.88 -> in the beginning antimatter would have

4211.04 -> been formed in tandem with Mata with

4213.14 -> pairs of particles forming from

4214.699 -> spontaneous energy transformations

4216.32 -> within the universe's first billionth of

4218.54 -> a second but in such a dense environment

4220.88 -> they wouldn't have lasted long before

4222.86 -> encountering their opposite annihilating

4225.32 -> together and transforming back into

4227.6 -> energy this process of spontaneous

4230.3 -> creation and destruction continues until

4232.4 -> the temperature of the universe drops

4234.38 -> and no new Quark anti-cork or lepton

4237.62 -> anti-lepton pairs are made but gluons

4240.679 -> are not Discerning on what kinds of

4242.3 -> matter they assemble and as protons and

4244.58 -> neutrons are being made for the first

4246.32 -> time they are accompanied by an equal

4248.36 -> number of antiprotons and anti-neutrons

4251.48 -> everything should be in balance at this

4255.199 -> point there should be no difference in

4256.699 -> the quantity of matter and antimatter

4258.5 -> and since the two kinds of particles

4260.239 -> behave identically and are only

4262.04 -> destroyed in pairs as well they should

4264.739 -> continue to be equal amounts of each

4268.34 -> but this isn't what we see

4270.8 -> at some point between a millionth of a

4273.14 -> second and two minutes into the

4274.52 -> universe's timeline the balance of

4276.739 -> antimatter and matter changes until only

4279.92 -> one antimatter particle in a billion

4282.86 -> remains and to this day physicists still

4286.52 -> aren't certain why

4290.84 -> it could be partly as a result of the

4293 -> broken symmetry that came about with the

4294.62 -> emergence of the weak Force experiments

4297.02 -> by Chen Chang Wu in the 1950s showed

4299.6 -> that quarks and anti-quarks are in fact

4302.06 -> treated slightly differently by the laws

4304.46 -> of nature the difference is very small

4306.739 -> but it is significant enough for us to

4309.02 -> see even so scientists don't think it is

4311.96 -> enough to explain the overwhelming

4313.88 -> Triumph of matter over antimatter in the

4316.88 -> early Universe instead they entertain

4319.159 -> the possibility that another as yet

4321.5 -> undetected and potentially extinct

4323.78 -> particle has a role to play the idea

4326.9 -> comes from another kind of asymmetry

4329 -> that has been found within the standard

4330.86 -> model every particle and anti-particle

4333.56 -> we have found exists in both

4335.3 -> right-handed and left-handed forms

4337.94 -> representing a kind of symmetry in

4340.04 -> handedness that physicists call parity

4343.1 -> but there is an exception where parity

4345.5 -> symmetry appears to be broken

4347.26 -> experimental physicists have only been

4349.52 -> able to find left handed neutrinos

4352.58 -> whereas all the anti-neutrinos are

4355.159 -> right-handed and so where are the

4357.679 -> right-handed neutrinos and left-handed

4359.84 -> anti-neutrinos

4361.78 -> scientists speculate that they may have

4364.1 -> existed early on within the universe's

4366.56 -> first millionth of a second but were

4368.659 -> unstable and decayed away if they

4371.179 -> decayed preferentially into matter

4372.86 -> rather than antimatter then this could

4375.38 -> have laid the foundation for mata's

4377.48 -> ultimate Triumph

4379.4 -> the theory is a tantalizing one but

4381.8 -> unfortunately there is not much that can

4383.54 -> be done to prove it until we know more

4385.64 -> about these mysterious missing neutrinos

4388.52 -> and it won't be until the universe is

4391.219 -> one second old the neutrinos will have

4394.04 -> anything to tell us at all

4406.64 -> when we peer into the deepest reaches of

4409.159 -> the night sky we are greeted with

4411.14 -> wonders in almost every wavelength there

4415.04 -> are delicately curled galaxies colorful

4417.5 -> nebulae and piercing Points of Light

4419.54 -> known as quasars far distant

4422.12 -> supermassive black holes swallowing

4424.34 -> matter and light at the centers of

4425.9 -> galaxies

4426.98 -> but these quasars also illuminate

4429.26 -> another curious feature that permeates

4431.42 -> deep space known as the Lyman Alpha

4435.56 -> Forest

4437.3 -> the constant speed of light through the

4439.34 -> expanding vacuum of space means that the

4441.679 -> more distant an object is the older it

4444.08 -> is as well so when we see quasars at

4446.6 -> Great distances we are seeing them as

4448.88 -> they appeared billions of years ago and

4451.219 -> the light they emit is redshifted

4453.26 -> stretched into the red parts of the

4455 -> electromagnetic spectrum compared to how

4457.34 -> they would normally appear

4459.26 -> but when we examine the spectral

4461.06 -> signatures of such distant and ancient

4463.159 -> quasars there is more to see than just

4465.8 -> the red-shifted light they give off at

4468.739 -> shorter wavelengths there are also sharp

4470.96 -> dips in the light we see and sometimes

4473.3 -> so many that they cluster thickly like a

4476.3 -> dense Thicket of Tall Pine trees on an

4478.88 -> Alpine mountain side this is the Lyman

4482.179 -> Alpha forest and it's created not by

4485.12 -> trees but by low density clouds of

4487.88 -> hydrogen gas lurking in Intergalactic

4491.239 -> space because when light passes through

4494.239 -> a cloud of hydrogen some of it is

4496.28 -> absorbed leading to a dip in the

4498.14 -> spectrum that we eventually intercept

4499.94 -> here on Earth and this is what is

4503.06 -> happening with the light from distant

4504.92 -> ancient quasars with every dip in the

4507.56 -> Spectrum corresponding to an otherwise

4509.9 -> invisible hydrogen cloud

4514.06 -> visualizing these tenuous structures is

4516.56 -> remarkable enough in itself but there is

4518.719 -> more we can tell from the structure of

4521 -> this spectral Forest

4523.159 -> astronomers have noticed that the

4524.84 -> absorption dips cluster most thickly at

4527.54 -> high red shifts which correspond to

4529.64 -> Great age giving us an insight into the

4532.1 -> chemistry and composition of the

4534.14 -> earliest Universe compared to today

4536.54 -> early space was full of these low

4539.54 -> density hydrogen clouds such that it

4542.42 -> became impossible for the quasar's light

4544.46 -> to avoid them and it was that hydrogen

4547.219 -> that became the nursery for stars and

4550.28 -> galaxies and was itself seeded in the

4553.58 -> first moments of the universe's

4555.38 -> existence

4557.06 -> by the time a single second has passed

4559.76 -> in the history of the universe a great

4561.86 -> deal has happened it is now a mere 10

4564.739 -> billion degrees Celsius it is filled

4567.199 -> with the victors of Ruthless particulate

4569.42 -> battles along with the energetic Photon

4571.88 -> shrapnel of countless mutually

4573.98 -> destructive encounters through quirks in

4576.5 -> the properties of the remaining

4577.699 -> particles the balance between protons

4579.8 -> and neutrons is set as the era of

4582.679 -> spontaneous particle births and swaps is

4585.56 -> finally brought to a close those

4588.08 -> particles that possess mass today are

4590.3 -> already endowed with it thanks to the

4592.1 -> Higgs field and the four forces that

4594.26 -> rule our lives today the strong nuclear

4596.659 -> force electromagnetism the weak nuclear

4599.42 -> force and gravity are now in full and

4602.179 -> comprehensible operation

4604.1 -> so far the workings of the one second

4606.739 -> old Universe has Lane primarily within

4609.56 -> the realm of theoretical physics with

4612.26 -> our most powerful instruments still

4614.12 -> struggling to generate the kinds of

4615.86 -> energies that prevailed within those

4617.6 -> first moments but we are now entering an

4620.6 -> era of the universe that can be studied

4622.76 -> more meaningfully by experimental

4625.34 -> physicists and even astronomers we are

4630.32 -> finally reaching a part of our

4631.94 -> cosmological history that we can hope to

4634.82 -> observe

4636.14 -> even

4637.46 -> map

4642.86 -> in the icy wastes of Antarctica for a

4645.8 -> couple of weeks a year the sun does not

4648.62 -> set

4650.179 -> and this is where the work started

4654.14 -> spraying hot water directly downwards

4656.36 -> into the ice in January 2005 scientists

4659.84 -> working on The Cutting Edge Ice Cube

4661.94 -> neutrino Observatory began the arduous

4664.4 -> 58-hour long process of creating the

4667.34 -> first 2.5 kilometer hole needed the

4670.76 -> first of 80. now the Ice Cube arrays

4674.54 -> various holes occupy a square kilometer

4677.12 -> of Antarctic ice but this immense size

4680 -> and improbable location aren't the only

4682.28 -> surprising features of this next

4683.96 -> Generation telescope for instead of

4686.36 -> pointing up into the night sky it stares

4689.719 -> down into and through the bowels of the

4692.96 -> earth it has no lenses mirrors or radio

4696.02 -> dishes but instead is made up of over 4

4699.14 -> 000 modules dangled on over 80 strings

4702.199 -> deep in holes in the ice hanging like

4705.679 -> pearls in the cold dark Antarctic depths

4710.12 -> as counterproductive as this may sound

4712.1 -> it is in fact the ideal kind of

4714.5 -> construction for observing one of the

4716.179 -> most elusive particles in the entire

4718.28 -> universe and the Ice Cube neutrino

4720.679 -> Observatory is joined by similar

4722.659 -> projects at the bottom of gold mines

4724.34 -> deep beneath the world's largest lake

4726.86 -> and in the hearts of Japanese mountains

4729.62 -> all dedicated to the search for the

4733.1 -> mysterious

4734.42 -> neutrino

4739.1 -> as a particle the neutrino was first

4741.5 -> proposed in the 1930s when particle

4743.9 -> physicists were balancing the equations

4745.64 -> of nuclear Decay observing how a neutron

4748.58 -> would sometimes spontaneously Decay into

4750.739 -> a proton and an electron Wolfgang Pally

4753.32 -> noticed that a tiny amount of energy was

4755.6 -> missing which he hypothesized was

4757.58 -> another kind of particle to small

4759.5 -> lightweight and ghostly for us to have

4761.239 -> any hope of detecting it indeed with the

4763.58 -> frequency of this kind of nuclear Decay

4765.56 -> 100 trillion of these ghostly particles

4768.26 -> must be streaming through our bodies

4769.88 -> every second without us having any

4772.04 -> notion of their passage but scientists

4775.04 -> do not accept defeat that easily and in

4777.44 -> 1951 a pair of American physicists Clyde

4780.679 -> Cohen and Frederick Reigns began to

4782.78 -> search for this ghostly particle and in

4784.94 -> what became known as project Poltergeist

4786.92 -> they turned to powerful nuclear fission

4789.56 -> reactions to provide the vast quantities

4792.02 -> of energy needed to detect neutrinos

4795.199 -> Cohen and Reigns first proposed

4797.179 -> detonating a 20 kiloton nuclear payload

4799.88 -> and installing an immense detector just

4802.159 -> 50 meters away from the blast this

4804.739 -> detector nicknamed El monstro was

4807.38 -> designed to pick up a flash of light

4808.82 -> after a neutrino collision and if it had

4811.34 -> been built would have been almost a

4813.32 -> thousand times larger than any previous

4815.3 -> detector in the end however this

4817.58 -> experiment proved too challenging and

4819.56 -> the scientists turned to the somewhat

4821.3 -> more controlled energy release to be

4823.1 -> found in nuclear reactors and so in 1956

4827 -> Cohen and Reigns experiment succeeded

4829.88 -> finally achieving the seemingly

4832.1 -> impossible detecting the ghost particle

4834.8 -> that had been haunting physics for more

4836.78 -> than 20 years

4840.92 -> these days the detection and study of

4843.14 -> neutrinos has advanced greatly and

4845.48 -> scientists are now able to produce and

4847.46 -> study them in powerful particle

4849.26 -> accelerators although there is still a

4851.719 -> place for monstrous detectors like the

4853.58 -> one in Lake Baikal for neutrinos can be

4857.12 -> used to answer not only questions about

4859.1 -> our universe today but also its very

4863.06 -> first moments

4866.42 -> neutrinos are produced in such quantity

4868.94 -> by such a variety of electromagnetic

4871.159 -> sources that scientists are trying to

4873.5 -> use them to study some of the most

4875.3 -> extreme events in the modern universe

4881.14 -> 168 000 years ago a star within the

4884.9 -> large magellanic cloud

4886.94 -> when supernova

4888.86 -> the explosion sent Atomic shrapnel

4891.14 -> reeling across Intergalactic space at

4893.48 -> nearly the speed of light this shrapnel

4895.82 -> including the countless neutrinos that

4898.1 -> were emitted in the blast struck the

4899.9 -> Earth in 1987 and scientists in Japan

4902.78 -> considered themselves extremely

4904.94 -> fortunate to be able to detect 11 of

4908.239 -> these neutrinos

4909.8 -> as insubstantial as this may seem the

4912.44 -> fact that astronomers could see the

4914.12 -> Supernova through this neutrino lens

4915.92 -> help to usher in a new era of

4918.679 -> multi-messenger astronomy gravitational

4921.32 -> waves telescopes tuned to a variety of

4924.199 -> electromagnetic frequencies and

4926.54 -> neutrinos could all be deployed together

4929 -> to study and understand the most extreme

4931.88 -> and mysterious events in the universe

4934.64 -> but not only that neutrinos give us the

4937.4 -> opportunity to probe objects that are

4939.32 -> too opaque for light to penetrate since

4942.14 -> their extreme unwillingness to interact

4944.3 -> with any matter at all sees them stream

4947 -> through everything from nebuli to stars

4950 -> and even entire planets and this is

4952.94 -> because they only interact with two of

4955.64 -> the fundamental forces the weak force

4958.159 -> and gravity this remarkable penetrative

4960.98 -> ability making them powerful Tools in

4963.86 -> probing some of the earliest moments of

4967.1 -> the universe

4973.219 -> after the decisive formation of matter

4975.44 -> around one second after the big bang the

4978.08 -> sheer density of hot energetic particles

4980.179 -> and photons rendered the early Universe

4982.46 -> completely opaque for hundreds of

4984.98 -> thousands of years our telescopes which

4987.679 -> rely on the passage of photons through

4989.48 -> empty space cannot probe this opaque

4992.3 -> plasma and so to see further back in

4994.76 -> time scientists need a different

4996.86 -> approach and that's where the neutrino

4999.86 -> comes in less than a second after the

5002.5 -> big bang neutrinos and anti-neutrinos

5005.14 -> were just another part of the hot Cosmic

5008.199 -> soup they collided and Scattered

5010.42 -> interacting with other matter because

5012.52 -> everything in the still dense Universe

5014.679 -> was so energetic but around the one

5017.02 -> second Mark temperatures in the universe

5019.3 -> dropped to 10 billion degrees Celsius

5021.58 -> and the particles correspondingly slowed

5025.12 -> eventually they were moving slowly

5026.98 -> enough for neutrinos to escape and find

5029.26 -> a way through the snarl of other

5030.76 -> particles they no longer collided with

5033.64 -> matter or light and could therefore

5036.1 -> Break Free to leave an imprint of their

5038.56 -> passage on the universe and so if we

5042.159 -> could find that imprint known to

5044.08 -> scientists as the cosmic neutrino

5046.3 -> background it would represent an image

5048.58 -> of the universe at just one second old

5051.34 -> extending our astronomical reach Back In

5054.1 -> Time by some 380

5056.86 -> 000 years but if these Relic neutrinos

5059.679 -> from the first second of the universe

5061.36 -> are out there they are even more elusive

5064 -> than their high energy counterparts

5065.739 -> compared to the 100 billion high energy

5068.56 -> neutrinos per cubic centimeter of space

5071.14 -> there are thought to be just 300 from

5074.8 -> that earliest time to detect them

5076.84 -> directly we would need to build our

5078.82 -> instruments with some billion times the

5081.219 -> current Precision or somehow detect the

5084.28 -> effect they had on the cosmos when they

5087.4 -> broke free for as the first things to

5090.04 -> stream through the otherwise opaque

5091.659 -> Cosmos these tiny particles are expected

5094.96 -> to have left miniature Sonic booms in

5097.6 -> their wake fundamentally altering the

5100.179 -> distribution of matter and energy some

5103.06 -> parts of space would have become

5104.44 -> slightly hotter and some parts slightly

5106.84 -> cooler thanks to this disruption and in

5109.12 -> the intervening 13.8 billion years space

5112.48 -> has expanded magnifying these patches

5115.78 -> into larger scale structure in the

5118.36 -> universe if we could decode some of that

5121.179 -> large-scale structure returned into the

5123.64 -> distribution of galaxies today then we

5126.1 -> may just be able to tune into the Echoes

5129.04 -> of a universe one second old

5132.219 -> and this is not the only modern mystery

5135.159 -> that could have its origins in the one

5137.739 -> second old Cosmos

5147.34 -> this is tan 618.

5151.3 -> at some 18.2 billion light years away

5154.239 -> from us it burns some 140 trillion times

5158.26 -> brighter than the sun making it one of

5160.719 -> the brightest objects in the known

5162.76 -> universe

5164.199 -> sought to be nearly 11 billion years old

5166.84 -> despite its incredible Luminosity it is

5169.659 -> actually one of the cosmos's biggest

5172.6 -> black holes

5174.34 -> understood to be a hypermassive black

5176.56 -> hole at the center of a galaxy whose

5178.719 -> trillions of stars it far outshines tons

5181.659 -> 618 has a mass that is some 66 billion

5184.84 -> times that of our sun and is more than

5187.06 -> 15 000 times more massive than

5189.219 -> Sagittarius A star the black hole at the

5192.04 -> center of the Milky Way in fact this

5194.44 -> single black hole is heavier than all

5196.54 -> the stars in the Milky Way put together

5198.6 -> Mata is falling into it at speeds of

5201.219 -> more than 10 000 kilometers per second

5203.44 -> causing intense heating so that the

5205.9 -> doomed material in its accretion disk

5208.06 -> glows brightly despite the light

5210.159 -> swallowing dark heart at its Center

5216.94 -> turn 618 may be the largest we have

5219.699 -> found but it is by no means the only

5222.04 -> such Titan lurking at the hearts of

5224.38 -> galaxies

5225.719 -> supermassive black holes with masses

5228.4 -> more than a hundred thousand times out

5230.26 -> of our sun are a common feature of large

5232.48 -> galaxies and are thought to be a major

5234.58 -> influence on how those Galaxies have

5236.62 -> formed and evolved over billions of

5238.78 -> years these hot massive Hearts

5241.6 -> themselves are thought to grow by

5243.82 -> swallowing Stellar Mata from the

5245.8 -> galactic Entourage

5247.6 -> but there is something about the timing

5249.58 -> of these supermassives that doesn't

5251.32 -> quite add up when astronomers survey the

5253.9 -> sky they find these gigantic black holes

5256.3 -> dating to just a few million years after

5258.46 -> the big bang despite the fact our models

5260.98 -> do not allow for the birth and death of

5263.08 -> Enough stars to feed such early Giants

5266.56 -> some of the supermassive black holes we

5269.02 -> have found grew to a billion times the

5271.42 -> mass of our sun by less than a billion

5273.639 -> years after Universe formation when

5275.86 -> according to models of star formation

5277.659 -> only around 100

5279.52 -> 000 solar masses should have been

5281.139 -> possible

5286.38 -> [Applause]

5289.719 -> a potential solution to this conundrum

5292.12 -> may be found in a theory that was

5293.62 -> developed many years before we were even

5295.78 -> aware of the oversized early

5297.54 -> supermassifes in 1971 Stephen Hawking

5301.78 -> proposed that there was another way that

5303.88 -> black holes could be formed without any

5306.88 -> precursor stars at all but rather from

5309.58 -> density fluctuations in the very early

5312.219 -> Universe he called them primordial black

5316.42 -> holes

5317.739 -> during the radiation dominated era when

5320.32 -> the universe was still an energetic

5321.94 -> plasma of photons and matter major

5324.179 -> inhomogeneities essentially lumps of

5326.92 -> matter would have resulted from the

5328.719 -> inflation and subsequent reheating of

5330.699 -> quantum irregularities in the nascent

5332.679 -> Universe gravity already inherent to the

5335.739 -> universe would have acted on these

5337.659 -> density contrasts collapsing vast areas

5340.54 -> of gas down on itself all over the early

5343.54 -> Universe however there was only around a

5346 -> one second window after the big bang

5347.679 -> when this could have happened before the

5350.08 -> universe expanded and cooled to such a

5352.12 -> size that gravity was no longer

5353.679 -> effective at pulling together matter

5355.42 -> into these black hole prisons after that

5358.239 -> the Universe would have to wait many

5360.219 -> millions of years before a new black

5362.38 -> hole would form through the death of

5364.48 -> stars but these primordial black holes

5367.36 -> could be the seeds for the otherwise

5369.52 -> unexplainable black holes we are

5371.98 -> detecting today the problem is although

5375.04 -> this Theory seems consistent with our

5377.08 -> understanding of how Mata behaved in the

5379.06 -> early Universe we have very little

5381.04 -> information on what exactly they did so

5383.139 -> and how large they could have grown in

5385.3 -> that one second window mathematically

5387.52 -> the later a primordial black hole forms

5389.739 -> the larger it would be and so estimates

5391.9 -> for their size vary spectacularly

5394 -> ranging from minuscule specs weighing a

5396.639 -> hundred thousandth the mass of a

5397.96 -> paperclip to mammoths a hundred thousand

5400.719 -> times heavier than our sun

5403.54 -> and so how do we find and identify them

5406.659 -> if they do exist

5409.48 -> in the 1970s Stephen Hawking also

5412.3 -> theorized that black holes do more than

5414.94 -> just swallow matter and grow ever larger

5417.76 -> he suggested they could lose some of

5420.46 -> their weight through what became known

5422.44 -> as Hawking radiation this weight loss is

5425.679 -> faster the smaller a black hole is and

5428.02 -> The Runaway acceleration of radiation

5429.82 -> would ultimately lead to the

5431.38 -> obliteration of a black hole in an

5433.239 -> explosion equivalent to 1 million

5435.219 -> Megaton hydrogen bombs any black hole

5438.28 -> that was less than 100 billion kilograms

5440.62 -> in Mass could be expected to Decay away

5442.96 -> within the age of the universe so

5445 -> scientists have begun searching for

5446.86 -> these characteristic explosive death

5448.9 -> throws with instruments like the

5450.88 -> space-based Fermi gamma ray telescope

5454.239 -> other potential methods for searching

5456.04 -> for these elusive primordial seeds

5458.02 -> involve looking for micro lensing and

5460.06 -> magnification of stars and galaxies as

5462.52 -> the black holes pass in front or trying

5464.92 -> to detect the destruction of dense Stars

5467.139 -> caught in the primordials gravitational

5469.179 -> Wells

5470.62 -> but all these Studies have accomplished

5472.42 -> so far is to rule out certain size

5474.88 -> ranges leaving an ever-shrinking

5476.92 -> envelope of possibility for how big

5479.38 -> primordial black holes can be and when

5482.26 -> they formed

5483.94 -> although astronomers have not yet given

5486.1 -> up hope the next generation of high-tech

5488.38 -> telescopes will continue the search with

5490.719 -> better reach and precision than ever

5492.46 -> before the laser interferometer space

5495.04 -> antenna or Lisa will launch next decade

5497.86 -> to continue spanning space for

5499.96 -> gravitational waves some of which may

5503.02 -> come directly from primordial black

5504.82 -> holes that have been roaming the

5506.5 -> universe since they first formed barely

5509.56 -> one second after the beginning of time

5523.78 -> on the 5th of December 2022 in the

5527.02 -> bowels of the national ignition facility

5529.06 -> at Lawrence Livermore National

5530.5 -> Laboratory in California Humanity

5533.28 -> achieved something remarkable

5536.94 -> scientists of the lab focused on 192

5540.219 -> lasers inside a one centimeter long gold

5543.159 -> cylinder containing a single fuel pellet

5545.679 -> to the size of a peppercorn itself

5547.659 -> containing two isotopes of hydrogen

5550.199 -> deuterium and tritium when the laser

5553.36 -> energy struck the walls of the capsule

5555.159 -> it heated them up to around 3 million

5557.32 -> degrees Celsius a temperature hotter

5559.42 -> than the surface of the Sun causing them

5561.639 -> to emit x-rays inside the cylinder these

5564.58 -> powerful x-rays then blasted the surface

5566.739 -> of the pellet and compressed the fuel at

5568.9 -> some 400 kilometers per second the fuel

5572.159 -> imploded reaching a hundred billion

5574.719 -> times atmospheric pressure in less than

5577.06 -> 10 billionths of a second the atoms of

5579.94 -> deuterium and tritium fuse together

5582.239 -> transforming them into helium while also

5585.159 -> giving off a high energy neutrino and

5587.199 -> other energy in total

5589.62 -> 2.05 megajoules of energy into the

5592.6 -> cylinder and 3.15 megajoules were

5596.32 -> produced by the fusion reaction in this

5599.5 -> way for the first time in nearly 70

5601.659 -> years of trying scientists managed to

5604.3 -> initiate a productive nuclear fusion

5607.3 -> reaction the fusion itself was nothing

5610 -> new humans have been making deadly

5611.92 -> Fusion weapons since the 1950s but this

5614.8 -> reaction in 2022 was the first time

5617.08 -> we've created Fusion that was able to

5619.12 -> release more energy than was put in to

5621.94 -> get it started the roughly 50 energy

5624.52 -> gain would have been enough to boil

5626.26 -> around 20 kettles still the Breakthrough

5629.62 -> is a major one for nuclear physics

5632.32 -> and yet this is a process that has been

5635.139 -> going on naturally in the hearts of

5637.36 -> every single star in the universe for

5640.06 -> billions of years not only that but the

5643.3 -> physics of the universe had this Fusion

5645.76 -> figured out within its very first minute

5652.84 -> humans have long been preoccupied with

5655.54 -> the seemingly magical Act of turning one

5657.82 -> thing into another whether it is

5660.04 -> producing a bunch of flowers from thin

5661.96 -> air or alchemically transmuting base

5664.06 -> Metals into valuable gold nothing

5666.58 -> fascinates us more than the idea of

5668.739 -> getting something novel from something

5670.54 -> mundane at the very early Cosmos was

5673.3 -> Rife with such Transformations while the

5675.82 -> unsettled fundamental forces drove

5677.86 -> chaotic identity swaps but such

5680.62 -> Transformations continue all around us

5683.02 -> even in the modern Universe radioactive

5686.199 -> decay mediated by the weak Force sees

5688.719 -> Atomic nuclei fracture and a break

5691 -> transforming elements into their less

5693.219 -> massive cousins on regular and

5695.08 -> predictable time scales this nuclear

5698.02 -> fission occurs in a wide variety of

5699.94 -> elements from carbon 14 used for carbon

5703.06 -> dating to technetium-99 used for medical

5706.12 -> imaging and uranium-235 used as fuel for

5710.26 -> nuclear reactors such Radioactive K

5713.44 -> occurs as a consequence of unstable

5715.42 -> Atomic nuclei and will typically happen

5717.699 -> spontaneously under the most ambient

5719.739 -> conditions but as the other kind of

5722.26 -> nuclear transformation nuclear fusion

5724.659 -> sees Atomic nuclei increase their mass

5727 -> and move up to the periodic table it is

5730.36 -> much harder to achieve

5732.93 -> [Music]

5735.46 -> the identities of all atoms are

5737.5 -> determined by the numbers of protons and

5739.48 -> neutrons within their nuclei hydrogen

5742.06 -> has one proton with different varieties

5744.219 -> of isotopes with different masses

5745.84 -> possessing different numbers of neutrons

5748.12 -> protium has only one proton deuterium

5751 -> has one additional Neutron doubling the

5752.98 -> relative mass of the atom and tritium

5755.08 -> has two neutrons bringing the total

5757.54 -> relative mass to three only when another

5760.36 -> proton is added does the identity of the

5762.52 -> element change two protons make a helium

5765.159 -> nucleus with helium-3 possessing one

5767.44 -> Neutron and the most stable helium-4

5770.08 -> having two neutrons the strong nuclear

5773.739 -> force is the agent responsible for

5775.54 -> binding all of the hadrons together into

5777.639 -> stable Atomic nuclei but with protons

5779.98 -> sharing a light positive charge they are

5782.199 -> pushed apart by another of the four

5784.239 -> fundamental forces the electromagnetic

5786.94 -> long before the gluons can hold them

5789.219 -> together so it takes intense heat and

5791.62 -> physical pressure such as that found at

5793.84 -> the heart of stars or inside in radiated

5796.12 -> golden capsule to push the protons close

5798.699 -> enough for the strong nuclear force to

5800.8 -> overcome its Force kin and for the

5802.719 -> elements to fuse into something new to

5805.12 -> make even heavier elements combining

5806.92 -> many tens of protons together it takes

5809.08 -> even more extreme Cosmic events like

5812.08 -> supernovae or mergings of stars despite

5815.56 -> their struggles to replicate it in the

5817.36 -> lab scientists have a good understanding

5819.28 -> of how nuclear fusion Works inside

5821.26 -> Stellar furnaces to create new elements

5823.659 -> from simple hydrogen and helium they

5826.6 -> have even witnessed and understood the

5828.639 -> very beginnings of that process inside

5831 -> so-called failed Stars

5834.699 -> Brown dwarfs are massive orbs of gas

5837.76 -> larger than the jupiter-like gas giants

5840.46 -> but smaller than an active star inside

5843.58 -> them there simply isn't enough heat and

5845.92 -> pressure for lightweight protium

5847.719 -> hydrogen to fuse into helium the process

5850.48 -> is accomplished by using heavier

5852.219 -> deuterium as an intermediate however

5854.8 -> none of these processes help to explain

5856.54 -> whether larger atoms of deuterium and

5858.88 -> helium came from in the first place

5861.52 -> answer for that we need to look back to

5864.4 -> an age before Stars before Stellar

5867.1 -> Fusion to the universe's very first

5870.159 -> minute

5874 -> when the average temperature of the

5876.1 -> universe dropped to around 10 million

5878.199 -> degrees Celsius about a microsecond

5880.3 -> after the big bang it was finally cool

5882.46 -> enough for quarks to bind into protons

5884.679 -> and neutrons making the building blocks

5887.679 -> for all elements to come but there is a

5890.44 -> hundred million year Gulf of time before

5892.54 -> we see the first stars begin to shine

5894.88 -> powered by the nuclear fusion of atomic

5897.1 -> nuclei at their cores so when and how

5900.58 -> did these nuclei come together it was in

5904.48 -> 1948 that the prodigious American PhD

5907.54 -> student Ralph Alpha working with his

5909.94 -> supervisor George gamoff proposed a

5912.34 -> mechanism that would later become known

5914.199 -> as Big Bang

5915.96 -> nucleosynthesis it was a bold and

5918.94 -> inspired Theory but the Brilliance of

5921.34 -> Alpha's work was somewhat overshadowed

5923.199 -> by gamoth's insistence on including

5925.06 -> another author in their seminal paper

5927.04 -> who had no part in its development in

5929.86 -> his words it seemed unfit to the Greek

5932.26 -> alphabet to have the article signed by

5934 -> Alpha and gamoth only and so the name of

5937.12 -> Dr Hans a beta was inserted in preparing

5939.94 -> the manuscript for print and so the

5942.76 -> alpha beta gamma paper became the

5944.739 -> authority on pre-stellar fusion and to

5947.38 -> this day provides the foundation for

5949.42 -> understanding how the high temperatures

5950.92 -> at the beginning of the universe could

5952.719 -> turn hydrogen into helium via deuterium

5956.199 -> intermediates

5958 -> [Music]

5960.82 -> protium is the lightest variety of

5963.159 -> hydrogen consisting of a single proton

5965.739 -> so as soon as quarks bound into protons

5968.38 -> these hydrogen nuclei existed although

5971.02 -> it's important to note that it will be

5972.58 -> some time before neutrally charged

5974.739 -> hydrogen atoms with both protons and

5977.56 -> electrons will form around 10 seconds

5980.8 -> after the big bang it was cool enough

5982.9 -> for some deuterium nuclei with one

5985.36 -> proton and one Neutron to form but in

5988.6 -> this hot Cosmic soup temperature and

5990.699 -> particle energies were still so high

5992.62 -> that the deuterium nuclei were unstable

5995.32 -> if they were struck by a photon as was

5997.6 -> inevitable under such densities these

5999.88 -> first composite nuclei would break apart

6001.92 -> again this is known to physicists as the

6004.56 -> deuterium bottleneck and until it was

6007.02 -> overcome nucleosynthesis simply couldn't

6009.78 -> progress past the fusing of one proton

6012.179 -> and one Neutron only after another 300

6015.84 -> seconds the temperatures drop

6017.52 -> sufficiently for deuterium to become

6019.62 -> more stable and National elements to

6022.38 -> form first deuterium with its one proton

6025.5 -> and one Neutron is able to fuse with

6027.96 -> individual protons under the intense

6030.179 -> compressive force of the entire universe

6032.699 -> the result is for the first time an

6035.699 -> entirely new stable element helium 3

6040.139 -> from this point the next Cosmic creation

6042.659 -> is the more common variety of helium

6044.84 -> helium-4 composed of two protons and two

6047.94 -> neutrons helium-4 nuclei represent the

6051.179 -> most stable Atomic nuclei in existence

6053.159 -> and are the hardest of all the elements

6054.96 -> to break apart because of this and the

6057.719 -> conditions that prevailed within those

6059.34 -> first few hundred seconds most of the

6061.62 -> free protons in the early Universe

6063.36 -> become swallowed up into helium and go

6065.58 -> no further calculations based on the

6067.8 -> initial balance of protons and neutrons

6069.719 -> and the available energy at this time

6071.52 -> predict that this would result in a

6073.5 -> universe that is around 25 percent

6075.36 -> helium by mass and this is indeed what

6080.04 -> we find even 13.8 billion years after

6083.58 -> this energetic burst of helium creation

6085.8 -> even after the lives and deaths of

6088.38 -> countless Stars the universe is still

6091.26 -> around 23 percent helium

6094.38 -> this observation alone is a striking

6097.5 -> confirmation of Alpha's Theory

6100.56 -> and it is here that we see another

6102.48 -> example of the fortuitous fine-tuning of

6105.3 -> the universe's initial conditions we

6107.76 -> already know that if the proton to

6109.199 -> Neutron ratio had been different than

6111.42 -> much of the universe's ordinary matter

6113.219 -> would have decayed away into uncharged

6115.32 -> and unreactive neutrons and helium but

6118.679 -> similarly even with the proton neutron

6121.139 -> ratio we would dealt if the matter in

6123.6 -> the cosmos had been any more compact at

6126.06 -> the time of big bang nucleosynthesis

6128.34 -> then even more helium would have formed

6131.58 -> the unreactivity of a universe made

6134.1 -> predominantly of helium would have meant

6136.139 -> little to no chemistry would have been

6137.94 -> possible thereafter again leading to The

6140.76 -> Bleak Prospect of a universe with no

6142.92 -> stars no galaxies and no us

6148.32 -> thankfully however this was not the case

6151.199 -> even as so many hadrons settled into

6153.96 -> their stable helium nuclei the universe

6156.54 -> is still full of latent energy which

6159.48 -> could be used for further Fusion

6162.679 -> and now the race is on to see how many

6165.96 -> novel elements can be created before the

6168.42 -> Ambient Energy of the universe drops too

6171.179 -> far eventually after around 1200 seconds

6174.3 -> of furious Cosmic nucleosynthesis

6176.76 -> amounting to little more than 20 minutes

6178.92 -> of universal existence the nuclear

6181.38 -> furnace finally sputters and dies

6184.619 -> it is still blisteringly hot by human

6186.9 -> standards but it is simply too cold for

6189.6 -> any further nuclei to form and so at

6192.179 -> this point only four elements exist

6195.02 -> hydrogen helium lithium and beryllium

6198.84 -> and because of the short-lived stability

6200.82 -> of those beryllium nuclei only the first

6203.34 -> three will survive long enough to see

6205.32 -> the first stars and to become the

6207.42 -> ultimate fuel for creating the other 98

6210.179 -> elements that could be found naturally

6212.04 -> within the modern universe

6214.86 -> at this stage there are 12 hydrogen

6216.84 -> nuclei for every helium nucleus and a

6219.659 -> billion photons for every composite

6221.76 -> matter particle but with these basic

6224.219 -> ingredients the stage is truly set for

6227.46 -> the formation of everything else

6230.1 -> even the deuterium and tritium that

6232.5 -> scientists fuse together in California

6234.42 -> in 2022 was itself first formed in the

6238.98 -> heat of a newborn universe

6241.4 -> 13.8 billion years ago

6254.3 -> life in the universe is a miracle of

6257.94 -> chemistry

6259.199 -> and as far as we know that chemical

6261.54 -> Miracle has only Arisen in one place on

6264.48 -> a nondescript wet rocky planet around an

6267.78 -> average yellow star sitting on the inner

6270.48 -> edge of one of the Milky Ways smaller

6272.76 -> spiral arms but how did living things

6276.36 -> come to Grace the Earth despite a

6280.08 -> healthy fossil record that extends back

6282.239 -> through some 3 billion years of the

6284.4 -> planet's history this moment of

6286.26 -> biological Genesis the spark of Life Is

6290.04 -> Lost to The Mists of time biologists

6292.98 -> agree that living things are composed of

6294.9 -> organic molecules made from carbon

6297.239 -> oxygen and hydrogen added to that they

6300.06 -> have discovered that all living things

6301.5 -> share a common chemical instruction

6303.48 -> manual in the form of DNA and RNA which

6307.199 -> are themselves composed of repeating

6309 -> units called nuclear basis cytosine

6312.239 -> guanine adenine thymine and uracil

6315.48 -> provide a universal language with which

6317.639 -> to encode information on how to grow a

6320.04 -> leaf a flipper or a hair follicle

6323.159 -> but where did these molecules come from

6325.92 -> in the first place

6331.139 -> some imagine that the warm and potent

6333.54 -> chemical environment on the newly formed

6335.82 -> Earth provided the perfect conditions

6337.86 -> for assembling organic molecules and

6340.139 -> nuclear bases from scratch but there is

6343.139 -> an alternative theory that the

6345 -> ingredients for life were not created on

6347.76 -> Earth but Among the Stars in the depths

6351.659 -> of space

6352.98 -> and indeed we are finding compelling

6355.5 -> evidence for the stuff of Life far out

6358.32 -> in the cosmos

6362.88 -> in 1969 American astronomers working out

6366.179 -> of the national radio astronomy

6367.86 -> observatory in Green Bank West Virginia

6369.98 -> detected the characteristic vibration of

6372.9 -> formaldehyde molecules containing carbon

6375.54 -> hydrogen and oxygen deep in interstellar

6379.26 -> space and many other complex molecules

6382.58 -> followed scientists have now identified

6385.739 -> over 250 organic molecules inside

6389.1 -> interstellar clouds and in the shells of

6391.619 -> materials surrounding Stars aldehydes

6394.5 -> alcohols acids and amines all

6397.199 -> fundamental building blocks of the

6399 -> larger molecules of Life lurking out

6401.28 -> there in the lifeless reaches of the

6403.98 -> universe foreign

6407.48 -> clue to the life-bringing potential of

6409.92 -> outer space arrived on Earth as far back

6412.199 -> as 1864.

6415.44 -> just after 8 pm on the 14th of May a

6418.619 -> meteorite fell to Earth in around 20

6420.54 -> pieces landing near the town of orgae in

6423.36 -> southern France the scientists who

6425.4 -> recovered and analyzed the orgy

6427.44 -> meteorite reported a composition very

6429.96 -> similar to Pete sparking intense debate

6432.78 -> over whether this organic matter could

6435.06 -> have biological origin but the lack of

6437.699 -> any identifiable biological structures

6439.679 -> made such a conclusion unlikely though

6442.26 -> when the meteorite was reanalyzed almost

6444.659 -> a hundred years later using more modern

6447.239 -> instruments and techniques chemists were

6449.82 -> amazed to discover nuclear-based

6452.159 -> molecules of adenine and guanine

6454.28 -> identical to those we find in DNA and

6457.92 -> RNA today subsequent studies of other

6460.98 -> organic Rich meteorites that have fallen

6463.199 -> all over the world have found the rest

6465 -> of Earth life's nuclear bases as well as

6467.52 -> several others that aren't found in our

6469.5 -> biological makeup a definitive answer to

6472.199 -> this question has yet to be revealed but

6474.179 -> the observation so far are do at least

6476.52 -> point to one certainty a surprising

6479.639 -> truth about the cosmos without any

6483.06 -> special provocation or encouragement the

6485.639 -> universe itself has the capacity to

6488.52 -> build molecules and perform remarkable

6491.4 -> acts of chemistry

6493.619 -> and this space chemistry at its

6496.679 -> Beginnings right back in the infant

6499.02 -> Universe less than a hundred thousand

6502.139 -> years after the beginning of time

6507.06 -> the Furious Act of Elemental creation

6509.4 -> during Big Bang nucleosynthesis had

6511.739 -> ground to a halt after just 20 minutes

6513.78 -> of universal existence as the cosmos

6516.239 -> expanded and cooled the Ambient Energy

6519.239 -> was no longer high enough to fuel

6521.04 -> nuclear fusion but conditions were still

6524.1 -> extreme the entire Cosmos was still

6526.8 -> denser than the air we breathe and

6528.719 -> temperatures still too high for

6530.52 -> lightweight electrons to slow down

6532.32 -> enough to be captured by the newly

6534.239 -> formed Elemental nuclei there is also

6536.94 -> still more energy than matter in the

6538.92 -> universe which exists as a hot

6541.1 -> disassociated plasma and it will still

6543.6 -> be tens of thousands of years before

6545.58 -> further cooling allows anything to begin

6548.1 -> to change and yet something is happening

6551.34 -> in the chaos

6553.139 -> first created in labs in 1925 helium

6556.86 -> hydride is an unstable ion of helium

6559.5 -> bonded with hydrogen very rarely found

6562.679 -> in nature and in 1978 astrochemist John

6567.659 -> H black at the University of Minnesota

6570.139 -> suggested that it could be found in

6573.3 -> abundance

6574.44 -> in space

6578.96 -> specifically in planetary nebulae which

6582.119 -> form from the energetic explosion of red

6584.46 -> giant Stars late in their lives he

6587.159 -> predicted that a thin layer of ionized

6589.38 -> helium would exist around a cloud of

6591.78 -> neutral hydrogen in this environment the

6594.78 -> helium ions strong need for electrons to

6597.54 -> neutralize their charge could drive them

6599.88 -> to steal one from the only other source

6602.219 -> around the hydrogen the association

6605.04 -> between these two in the superheated

6606.96 -> nebula would ultimately lead to the

6609.179 -> formation of helium hydride ions and yet

6611.94 -> the molecule continued to prove elusive

6615.36 -> a long search ensued with frustratingly

6618.3 -> little success that was until 2019 when

6622.26 -> an Innovative telescope managed to

6624.36 -> achieve the seemingly impossible

6629.179 -> these days most telescopes are either

6631.56 -> based on the ground situated high on

6633.719 -> mountaintops to avoid the worst of light

6635.52 -> pollution weather and Atmospheric

6637.32 -> Distortion or they're launched into

6639.3 -> space to get rid of those problems

6641.04 -> altogether as they orbit the Earth or

6643.199 -> the Sun but the Sofia Observatory did

6646.32 -> something different it consisted of a

6649.38 -> 2.7 meter wide mirrored telescope that

6652.619 -> was pointed out the back door of a

6654.78 -> specially adapted Boeing 747 flying at

6658.739 -> over 43 000 feet at this height the

6662.34 -> instruments connected to the telescope

6664.02 -> could enjoy many of the benefits of a

6665.82 -> Space Telescope since they would be

6667.619 -> lifted above the majority of the water

6669.179 -> in the Earth's atmosphere allowing them

6671.28 -> to probe wavelengths of light that water

6673.26 -> vapor usually absorbs and critically the

6676.679 -> telescope connected to the far infrared

6679.08 -> receiver known fittingly by its acronym

6681.48 -> great which had sufficient resolution to

6684.6 -> finally pick out the faint overlapping

6687.48 -> signature of medium hydride ions in deep

6691.199 -> space

6693.78 -> in the end the detection came from three

6696.3 -> days of observation on a planetary

6698.159 -> nebula designated NGC

6701.239 -> 7027 which sits about 3000 light years

6704.28 -> away from Earth in the direction of the

6706.26 -> cygnus constellation

6708.5 -> in this hot and energetic Interstellar

6711.36 -> environment just as John black predicted

6713.639 -> 40 years earlier helium hydride is able

6716.58 -> to form and leave its signature on the

6719.159 -> nebulous Spectrum detecting this signal

6721.739 -> is a Triumph for nearly 100 Years of

6724.56 -> experimental and theoretical chemistry

6727.08 -> but the implications of its Discovery

6729.54 -> here are even greater for the conditions

6732.78 -> inside this distant nebula are very

6735.179 -> similar to those that prevailed

6736.739 -> throughout the holy Universe within its

6739.619 -> first few tens of thousands of years

6743.86 -> [Music]

6745.86 -> Big Bang nucleosynthesis was very

6748.32 -> efficient at creating Atomic nuclei but

6750.78 -> for hundreds of thousands of years

6751.92 -> afterwards Cosmic energies remained too

6754.679 -> high for hydrogen deuterium and helium

6757.32 -> to combine with electrons to make

6759.06 -> uncharged atoms however when ambient

6761.58 -> temperatures dropped to around 4000

6763.619 -> Kelvin those Wayward nuclei were able to

6766.199 -> combine with each other in a specific

6768.06 -> order governed by what's known as their

6770.4 -> ionization potential and it is because

6772.739 -> of this that helium is today considered

6775.739 -> the most noble of all the noble gases it

6780.239 -> is the most inert and the least likely

6783 -> to react because of the huge amount of

6784.8 -> energy it takes to strip away one of its

6786.9 -> electrons and transform it into an ion

6789.719 -> but in the early Universe when all that

6792.06 -> existed were ions particles with net

6795.179 -> charge this supreme grabbing power means

6798.6 -> that helium was the first element to

6800.76 -> attract electrons and hold on to them

6802.8 -> forming the very first uncharged

6806.76 -> however this stability for helium was

6809.34 -> sadly short-lived it was still too hot

6812.639 -> for lone protons to capture electrons to

6815.159 -> make hydrogen atoms so the protons

6817.8 -> turned to the helium and its balancing

6819.96 -> complement of electrons seeking an

6822.06 -> arrangement where they could share and

6824.159 -> So eventually under the crushing burden

6826.38 -> of these clingy protons helium relented

6829.92 -> forming the very first chemical bonds

6832.56 -> and the first molecule in the universe

6835.4 -> creating very unstable helium hydride

6838.56 -> ions in the process

6841.139 -> despite this instability these

6843.3 -> short-lived molecules pave the way for

6845.28 -> the creation of other molecules and the

6847.679 -> beginnings of space chemistry around 100

6851.34 -> 000 years having passed since the Big

6853.619 -> Bang

6856.8 -> today the field of astrochemistry is

6859.139 -> well developed as the study of what

6861.179 -> molecules we can expect to find in space

6863.46 -> and how they form many atomic structures

6866.159 -> that are found on Earth are also common

6867.84 -> throughout the cosmos including water

6869.82 -> and ammonia but others are much more

6872.639 -> exotic like dihydron monochloride

6875.46 -> cations or hydroperoxyl

6878.52 -> though many are yet to be discovered

6880.679 -> whatever they turn out to be they

6882.84 -> ultimately owe their existence to helium

6885.48 -> hydride ions made and unmade in the

6889.26 -> first 100

6890.4 -> 000 years of the universe

6892.67 -> [Music]

6902.76 -> you may think that you have a good grasp

6905.46 -> of the world that surrounds you

6908.04 -> with specialized organs dedicated to

6910.26 -> sensing light sound the solid Touch of

6912.6 -> matter and the chemical nuances of

6914.76 -> molecules our brains seem well fitted to

6917.88 -> perceive all the possible stimuli the

6920.1 -> universe can provide but this simply

6923.219 -> isn't true there is much much more to

6926.58 -> reality than meets the eye ear or

6929.94 -> fingertip

6931.44 -> take light most of us are able to see

6934.86 -> the world in glorious sharp focused

6937.44 -> Technicolor but visible light is just a

6940.08 -> tiny fraction of a wider electromagnetic

6942.36 -> spectrum whose waves are constantly and

6944.88 -> imperceptibly washing over us every

6946.98 -> moment of Our Lives high energy gamma

6949.739 -> and x-rays are emitted by the food we

6951.659 -> eat the bricks that make up our homes

6953.639 -> and even our own bodies the radiative

6957.119 -> energy from the sun which we may think

6959.219 -> we can perceive contains around 10

6961.44 -> percent ultraviolet light with the

6963.6 -> capacity to penetrate and damage our

6965.699 -> skin and eyes and at energies lower than

6968.76 -> visible light sunlight is composed of

6970.98 -> around 50 infrared radiation some of

6974.52 -> which we experience as heat but even on

6977.88 -> Lower energies infrared Technologies

6980.04 -> like motion sensors and television

6981.9 -> remotes send and receive their signals

6984.42 -> entirely undetected Bluetooth Wi-Fi

6987.48 -> cellular Mobile and GPS all work by

6990.84 -> exchanging information through the air

6992.639 -> via microwave frequencies of radiation

6995.42 -> meanwhile our analog radios and

6998.04 -> televisions use the longest wavelength

7000.139 -> of em radiation radio waves

7004.1 -> if we could see all of them we would be

7007.46 -> blinded all told for all our apparent

7010.1 -> sentience we are unaware of at least 99

7013.34 -> of what is occurring within the universe

7016.4 -> perhaps this is just as well as it is

7018.8 -> hard to imagine how our brains could

7020.659 -> adapt to cope with all the possible

7022.52 -> stimuli the relative calm of a night sky

7025.4 -> would be a blaze of color and a riot of

7027.92 -> sound with sharp points of light and

7030.199 -> song from a multitude of sources

7032.84 -> and behind it all everywhere a faint

7035.84 -> backlit glow the lingering radiation of

7040.04 -> the first light

7041.659 -> in the cosmos

7043.57 -> [Music]

7047.48 -> the first few hundred thousand years of

7049.58 -> the universe's existence it was utterly

7051.8 -> opaque despite being full of light such

7054.98 -> a concept is hard for us to imagine

7056.42 -> today but since a trillionth of a second

7058.52 -> after the big bang the photons that

7060.619 -> carried much of the energy in the

7062.06 -> universe had become trapped in a maze of

7064.34 -> their own making with matter and energy

7066.38 -> occupying opposite sides of the same

7068.54 -> coin the cooling of the newborn Cosmos

7071.239 -> saw Pure Energy transformed into matter

7074.139 -> flooding the universe with subatomic

7076.76 -> particles the density and intense

7079.099 -> vibrational energy of these such that

7081.38 -> photons simply could not penetrate the

7083.659 -> Swarm it wouldn't be until the ultimate

7086.06 -> formation of atoms that anything would

7089.119 -> change

7092.42 -> in the modern Universe it is uncharged

7095.42 -> atoms rather than charged ions that are

7098.06 -> the building blocks for everything

7099.139 -> around us due to their small size it

7102.08 -> takes a staggering number of these atoms

7104.06 -> to build anything there are around seven

7106.34 -> octillion atoms in each human body

7108.619 -> that's a seven followed by 27 zeros

7111.56 -> scale this up to the number of humans

7113.719 -> and all other living things on earth

7115.46 -> factor in the Earth itself and multiply

7118.04 -> by all the planets and stars in the

7119.96 -> cosmos and the number of atoms in the

7122.42 -> entire universe is ungraspable but the

7125.54 -> real key to making an atom lies in the

7128.3 -> capture of electrons first discovered

7131.42 -> towards the end of the 19th century

7132.98 -> these negatively charged leptons are 2

7136.04 -> 000 times lighter than a proton and can

7138.08 -> be thought of as a singular point with

7140.119 -> no shape or internal structure and such

7142.699 -> minute scales quantum physics governs

7145.4 -> their behavior and Quantum uncertainty

7147.5 -> dictates that we cannot know their speed

7149.719 -> and position we would never be able to

7152 -> pinpoint to single electron instead they

7154.699 -> can be thought of as simultaneously

7156.56 -> occupying every possible spot that they

7158.9 -> can as far as the laws of physics allow

7164.06 -> once positively charged Atomic nuclei

7166.82 -> have been created during Big Bang

7168.34 -> nucleosynthesis the electromagnetic

7170.78 -> force helps to ensnare negatively

7172.639 -> charged electrons to create a neutrally

7174.92 -> charged atom hydrogen nuclei capture a

7177.92 -> single electron and helium nuclei

7180.139 -> capture two but simple as this may sound

7182.78 -> it is not a quick process the

7185.54 -> electromagnetic force is some 100 times

7188.119 -> weaker than the strong force that holds

7190.52 -> hadrons and nuclei together and so the

7192.92 -> ambient conditions of the universe must

7195.139 -> be that much less energetic if

7197.06 -> electromagnetism hopes talasu The

7199.4 -> Supercharged electrons and bring them

7201.44 -> into the chorale

7203.599 -> in the end it takes 380

7207.139 -> 000 years of cosmic expansion for

7209.36 -> temperatures to drop far enough to

7211.46 -> around 3000 Kelvin for electrons to

7214.58 -> finally Join the Herd and make the first

7217.06 -> stable atoms

7219.86 -> and when they do the entire universe

7222.86 -> transforms

7225.46 -> electromagnetic attractions sucks

7227.36 -> electrons into stable orbits around

7229.4 -> Atomic nuclei where they once roamed

7232.04 -> freely through the universe the

7233.96 -> electrons are now tightly bound to their

7236 -> positively charged counterparts opening

7238.52 -> up empty space for the first time since

7240.92 -> the creation of Mata

7242.599 -> the photons that have been trapped in a

7244.58 -> labyrinths for hundreds of thousands of

7246.26 -> years suddenly find their paths clear

7249.04 -> they can escape traveling in straight

7252.199 -> lines without instantly striking another

7254.179 -> particle they are the first light the

7257.54 -> truly penetrates the universe what was

7260.659 -> one moment opaque now becomes

7262.58 -> transparent what was one moment plasma

7264.92 -> now becomes gas and what was one moment

7267.619 -> shattered now becomes whole for the

7271.04 -> first time in the entire history of the

7273.32 -> universe we finally have a chance of

7276.5 -> seeing what was going on

7278.62 -> [Music]

7286.94 -> is

7288.98 -> very few discoveries in science are made

7291.44 -> by accident

7293.76 -> [Music]

7295.099 -> much less the kinds of discoveries that

7297.26 -> lead to Nobel prizes instead scientific

7300.38 -> progress is typically hard one through

7302.9 -> years of commitment incremental research

7305.36 -> and investment but in 1978 the Nobel

7309.38 -> committee flew in the face of convention

7311.54 -> and awarded that Year's Prize in physics

7314.3 -> to two men whose groundbreaking

7316.52 -> discovery was something of a fluke

7319.699 -> it was in the early 1960s in the small

7322.58 -> town of Holmdel New Jersey that the

7324.86 -> stage was set for the most fortuitous of

7327.02 -> discoveries for it was there that the

7329.54 -> company Bell Labs had constructed a

7332.48 -> 20-foot horn-shaped antenna just a few

7336.26 -> years after the Great Horn was built a

7338.48 -> new satellite system usurped the

7340.28 -> original rendering the instrument

7341.619 -> obsolete but Bell Labs didn't let their

7344.54 -> gigantic hearing aid go to waste instead

7347.119 -> they opened it up to researchers Arno

7349.219 -> penzius and Robert Wilson who planned to

7352.04 -> tune into and analyze the radio signals

7354.8 -> coming from the space between galaxies

7358.52 -> however when they began their

7360.08 -> observations the two astronomers

7362.119 -> struggled to make out the signal above a

7364.34 -> low but persistent radio hiss

7368.139 -> they checked it wasn't coming from

7370.219 -> nearby New York City or from local

7372.5 -> military installations they confirmed it

7374.9 -> wasn't coming from any particular part

7376.52 -> of the Milky Way or outside of it but

7379.159 -> rather it seemed to be coming from the

7381.739 -> entire sky and so for this noise to

7385.34 -> appear so consistent and omnidirectional

7387.86 -> the researchers concluded it must be due

7390.8 -> to some error within the instrument and

7393.92 -> indeed when they inspected the antenna

7396.199 -> they found it to be home to a number of

7399.32 -> roosting pigeons perhaps they're

7402.199 -> droppings what they described as a white

7404.3 -> dielectric material was giving off heat

7406.52 -> that was creating the noise after

7408.8 -> several failed attempts to humanely

7410.9 -> re-home the birds the researchers

7413.119 -> resorted to more drastic measures and

7415.76 -> eventually cleared the Horn of both

7417.44 -> pigeon and droppings and yet the hissing

7421.099 -> still remained penzius and Wilson had

7424.34 -> eliminated all possible sources of error

7426.679 -> in their instrument and so as a last

7429.38 -> resort began to entertain the notion

7431.84 -> that this radio noise could in fact be

7435.26 -> coming from the entire sky

7438.139 -> they reached out to a fellow astronomer

7440.179 -> at Princeton University Robert Dickey

7442.639 -> for advice and it was Dicky who solved

7445.699 -> the mystery in the biggest way possible

7450.38 -> he had been developing a theory of atom

7452.599 -> formation in the early Universe

7454.46 -> believing the Big Bang to be cyclical

7456.56 -> all the atoms of a previous Universe

7458.659 -> being ripped apart in a scorching

7460.34 -> Fireball of compression and reassembled

7462.679 -> when the universe expanded and cooled

7465.02 -> again this so-called recombination would

7468.08 -> turn the cosmos transparent and allow

7470.48 -> light to be released for the very first

7472.28 -> time in this universe's chronology his

7474.98 -> theories predicted that such light

7476.659 -> originally in the visible part of the

7478.639 -> spectrum as a yellow orange glow could

7481.04 -> still be detected at Great distances

7483.32 -> within the universe subsequent expansion

7486.38 -> of the cosmos would stretch that early

7488.36 -> space time until the glow became

7490.4 -> red-shifted beyond the perception of our

7492.5 -> eyes and into microwave wavelengths

7497.179 -> Dickey had planned to search for it

7499.219 -> himself but penzius and Wilson had

7501.619 -> unwittingly beaten him to it and so a

7505.04 -> decade later it was the two Bell lab

7507.32 -> researchers who were awarded the Nobel

7509.54 -> Prize for the discovery of the so-called

7512.179 -> Cosmic microwave background and not

7516.199 -> Robert Dickey

7519.98 -> regardless of who was credited for

7521.9 -> finding or figuring out the cosmic

7523.639 -> microwave background and despite

7525.56 -> Dickey's cyclical Fireball model being

7527.659 -> later ruled out its detection

7529.699 -> represented a major turning point for

7532.04 -> our understanding of the Big Bang the

7534.739 -> discovery of this red-shifted Fireball

7537.38 -> glow now stretched out to be just 2.7

7540.56 -> degrees above absolute zero is

7542.96 -> conclusive evidence that the Universe

7545.48 -> did in fact start out in a hot dense

7549.44 -> state

7550.94 -> even though it dates to a moment some

7553.04 -> 380 000 years after that moment of

7556.219 -> cosmological creation it is Vindication

7559.219 -> for our theories of how things unfolded

7562.159 -> in the intervening period the earliest

7564.98 -> observational evidence we have are the

7567.739 -> hot energetic and compact early Universe

7571.099 -> even containing within it Clues as to

7574.76 -> how the universe will unfold

7578.179 -> because while penzias and Wilson found

7580.52 -> the microwave hum to be remarkably

7582.38 -> consistent across the night sky later

7584.9 -> instruments designed to study the CMB

7587.36 -> discovered very slight variations places

7590.659 -> where it was slightly hotter or cooler

7593 -> by a few hundred thousandths of a degree

7595.58 -> mapping the CMB became a priority for

7598.699 -> projects like the cosmic background

7600.32 -> Explorer the Wilkinson microwave

7602.54 -> anisotropy probe and the Planck

7604.76 -> telescope giving rise to incredibly

7607.04 -> detailed images of energy and density

7609.44 -> variations in the 380 000 year old

7613.099 -> universe

7617.48 -> and it was those density variations that

7620.78 -> provided the seeds for large-scale

7623.06 -> structure today since they contained

7625.52 -> more matter which then attracted more

7627.44 -> matter becoming denser and pulling in

7629.9 -> even more and within 100 million years

7632.78 -> these over densities had grown massive

7635.06 -> enough to trigger the formation of the

7637.28 -> first stars and galaxies these

7639.739 -> variations seem to be largely random as

7642.26 -> would be expected the result of

7644 -> subatomic Quantum fluctuations inflated

7646.46 -> to massive scale through inflation in

7649.04 -> the first fraction of a second after the

7650.84 -> big bang but closer analysis also

7653.719 -> reveals another curious pattern hidden

7656.54 -> within the CMB and one that is also

7660.02 -> mirrored in the large-scale structure of

7662.54 -> the universe today

7665.119 -> prior to the formation of atoms when the

7667.88 -> universe was still filled with opaque

7669.98 -> plasma it was dense enough for sound

7672.619 -> waves to pass through it just as sound

7675.199 -> travels through the air today these

7677.599 -> waves had their origin in conflicting

7679.58 -> forces of attraction and repulsion

7681.5 -> within the roiling energetic soup as

7683.96 -> gravity pulled MATA in towards the

7686.06 -> center of denser patches but photons

7688.159 -> trapped within that collapsing Maze

7690.08 -> rebelled and exerted in outward pressure

7692.42 -> upon being packed too tightly and so

7695.239 -> these photons pushed back out taking

7697.28 -> some of the matter with them spreading

7699.26 -> out in three dimensions creating a

7701.54 -> complex pattern of concentric ripples as

7704.719 -> if from so many raindrops in a pond in a

7708.08 -> sense these compressional waves are

7710.42 -> sound waves and are therefore known to

7712.82 -> cosmologists as baryonic acoustic

7715.699 -> oscillations however this phenomenon did

7718.639 -> not survive past Atomic recombination

7720.98 -> once the universe reached its critical

7723.139 -> temperature of 3000 Kelvin Allah

7725.119 -> allowing electrons to be captured and

7726.86 -> atoms to form the expanding ripples were

7729.56 -> suddenly stopped in their tracks as the

7731.96 -> photons that were carrying the matter

7733.4 -> outwards could now escape unhindered the

7736.04 -> baryonic acoustic oscillations were all

7738.619 -> Frozen in place they could go no further

7742.52 -> and the bunched matter at their

7744.199 -> spherical periphery was left stranded

7746.659 -> just as the photons had left it

7750.26 -> now some 13 and a half billion years

7753.199 -> later the universe has expanded but the

7756.08 -> pattern left behind by these Frozen

7758.119 -> ripples can still be discerned in the

7760.639 -> overall structure of Galactic clusters

7762.86 -> and superclusters cosmologists find the

7765.98 -> baryonic acoustic oscillations in the

7768.199 -> modern universe and now roughly 150

7771.28 -> megaparsecs or nearly 500 million light

7774.92 -> years across and measurements of their

7777.139 -> Dimensions at greater distances and

7779.06 -> times within the observable Cosmos

7781.099 -> provide astronomers with a so-called

7783.32 -> standard ruler with which they can

7785.179 -> measure the expansion of space

7788.3 -> with this information in a universe that

7791.06 -> is finally rendered visible to our

7793.04 -> instruments we can model how things have

7795.619 -> unfolded and predict how things will

7798.44 -> unfold in the future

7800.719 -> the imprint of the universe's first

7802.88 -> light may have already stretched and

7805.04 -> dimmed to a shadow of its former self

7807.139 -> but it will be trillions of Years yet

7809.42 -> before it fades completely from our view

7811.82 -> giving cosmologists of the future plenty

7814.82 -> of time yet to decipher its Mysteries

7827.239 -> a bright twinkle of light ignites in the

7830.36 -> Blackness of space

7833.38 -> first one then another then a Cascade of

7837.26 -> pinpoints light up a cluster grows

7840.56 -> swelling in size and gradually

7842.54 -> brightening with the light of even more

7844.52 -> young stars and within a few billion

7846.8 -> years is large enough and massive enough

7849.139 -> to begin to spin its own and give the

7852.26 -> momentum is enough to stretch it out at

7854.06 -> its equator flattening the cluster into

7856.46 -> a disc that whirls at more than 200

7858.739 -> kilometers per second completing a full

7860.96 -> rotation every 250 million years or so

7864.44 -> as this young spiral galaxy Wheels

7867.26 -> Through extra Galactic space it captures

7869.42 -> and absorbs smaller clusters that line

7871.82 -> its path head-on collisions with other

7874.159 -> spinning galaxies result in mergers

7876.38 -> which seed the original spiral with new

7879.139 -> material for a frantic burst of star

7881.84 -> formation

7883.219 -> it is some 10 billion years ago and our

7887 -> Milky Way galaxy is in the prime of its

7890.599 -> life for a few billion years within the

7893.3 -> Rippling spiral arms of the Milky Way

7895.34 -> massive stars ignite burn furiously and

7899 -> die dramatically shedding their spent

7901.219 -> Fusion fuel back into the galactic Cloud

7903.56 -> for recycling this gas is enriched with

7906.5 -> the heavier elements that are formed

7908 -> during Stellar nuclear fusion and

7910.28 -> provide the foundation for an entirely

7912.44 -> new generation of stars and for the

7915.5 -> first time planetary systems late to the

7919.34 -> star-forming party on a fragmented

7921.56 -> spiral arms on 25

7923.78 -> 000 light years from the galactic center

7925.58 -> one such star sputters into existence

7928.58 -> around 4.6 billion years ago and like

7932.719 -> the Galaxy itself mirrored on a smaller

7935.3 -> scale dust and gas swirl around it in a

7938.54 -> flattened disc dust becomes Pebbles

7941.42 -> Pebbles become boulders and eventually

7944.239 -> Boulders become entire Rocky worlds

7947.239 -> these Rocky worlds jostle for a stable

7950.179 -> position around the yellow star and

7952.46 -> after a few catastrophic collisions

7954.38 -> eventually settle into orbits they will

7956.96 -> occupy for the next four and a half

7959.84 -> billion years

7962.179 -> on the third such Rocky World from the

7964.699 -> Sun as the heat from its violent

7966.5 -> formation dissipates water condenses to

7969.44 -> make oceans and atmospheres and plate

7972.139 -> tectonics Begins the slow recycling of

7974.78 -> rock at the planetary surface somewhere

7977.54 -> inside the oceans somehow a spark of

7980.719 -> Life ignites Finds Its feet and adapts

7984.26 -> and evolves filling this unique world

7986.54 -> with an entirely new kind of creation

7989.56 -> chemistry becomes biology as a multitude

7992.659 -> of life forms swarm the sea land and sky

7996.92 -> and then as if from nowhere a sentient

8000.099 -> mind appears to contemplate its place in

8004.9 -> the universe

8006.49 -> [Music]

8013.119 -> despite knowing the broad sequence of

8015.159 -> events that led to the formation of the

8016.9 -> Milky Way galaxy the Sun the Earth life

8019.36 -> and us there are still gaps in the

8022 -> cosmological understanding of our

8023.739 -> creation

8025.239 -> just how did the lumpy soup of atoms

8027.94 -> created a few hundred thousand years

8029.98 -> after the big bang lead to all of this

8033.599 -> several billion years down the line was

8037.06 -> all of it inevitable or could the

8039.46 -> universe have followed a different path

8042.76 -> taking the matter and energy we know

8045.04 -> existed around the time of atomic

8046.84 -> recombination and the formation of the

8048.76 -> cosmic microwave background and

8050.8 -> simulating the subsequent Cosmic

8052.84 -> Evolution we end up with a universe that

8055.78 -> is subtly but significantly different to

8058.719 -> the one in which we find ourselves

8061.48 -> there are fewer galaxies less vigorous

8064.599 -> star formation and delayed planetary

8066.82 -> formation it's possible in these

8068.8 -> simulations that life may be lagging

8071.079 -> behind or even absent altogether there

8075.46 -> is clearly something missing from this

8077.38 -> picture one final puzzle piece that

8079.719 -> quite literally brings everything

8081.84 -> together

8083.639 -> unfortunately that missing piece is a

8086.5 -> phenomenon that cosmologists simply

8089.44 -> can't see

8092.42 -> [Music]

8095.82 -> 380 000 years after the big bang light

8099.34 -> has finally escaped its matter prison

8101.82 -> photons can travel freely through the

8104.32 -> expanding Cosmos but lose energy as it

8106.96 -> grows the universe may no longer be

8109.119 -> opaque but it is dark the fierce energy

8113.139 -> of formation has faded and it will be

8115.719 -> millions of years yet before a new

8117.82 -> process nuclear fusion comes to

8120.76 -> concentrate energy once again these are

8124.179 -> the dark ages of the universe and there

8126.699 -> may be little to see but this doesn't

8128.98 -> mean there is little going on

8131.619 -> indeed it is during this time up to and

8134.619 -> Beyond the first million years of

8136.48 -> cosmological history that scientists

8139.06 -> believe Dark Matter steps up to shape

8143.26 -> the future of the universe

8147.76 -> the existence of Dark Matter was first

8150.4 -> considered in 1933 when Swiss astronomer

8153.639 -> Fritz ziki was studying the coma cluster

8156.34 -> of galaxies some 320 million light years

8159.76 -> away from the earth these galaxies seem

8162.46 -> to be moving too fast for the cluster to

8165.159 -> remain a cluster estimates of the masses

8167.86 -> of each galaxy in the cluster based on

8170.02 -> the luminous stars that could be seen

8171.699 -> encountered gave a number that was some

8173.92 -> 10 times less than what would have been

8175.78 -> needed to keep the group together given

8178 -> how fast the galaxies were moving to

8180.219 -> explain this apparent discrepancy

8181.84 -> between the two methods of determining

8183.699 -> mass zviki proposed that there must

8186.04 -> actually be a lot of unseen Mass lurking

8189.159 -> out there amongst the Stars gas and

8191.86 -> visible matter he called it Dunkel

8194.559 -> materi German for dark matter

8198.82 -> in the late 1970s pioneering astronomer

8202.059 -> Vero Rubin was studying the rotation of

8204.76 -> the Andromeda galaxy the closest spiral

8207.34 -> galaxy to our own when she noticed that

8209.679 -> something didn't add up in the Motions

8211.719 -> of its Stars at the time she and her

8214.719 -> colleagues studied cryptic punch card

8216.76 -> readouts from their instruments but to

8218.979 -> this seasoned astronomer the problem was

8221.92 -> as clear as day galaxies were expected

8224.679 -> to spin fast close into the center while

8227.62 -> Stars at the edges would make a more

8229.42 -> stately progression but the punch cards

8231.7 -> were telling a different story The Stars

8233.92 -> at andromeda's Outer Edge seemed to be

8235.899 -> moving just as fast as those in the

8238.059 -> central bulge with the tips of its

8240.28 -> spiral arms whipping around with

8242.019 -> implausible speed the only explanation

8244.599 -> for such a movement without violating

8246.46 -> the universe's fundamental Laws of

8248.439 -> Motion was that the Stars themselves

8250.599 -> were only a part of the overall mass of

8253.96 -> the Galaxy

8255.399 -> Ruben calculated that the visible matter

8257.92 -> must represent just 15 percent of what

8260.62 -> was really there and that the Andromeda

8262.84 -> galaxy must be cocooned in a much larger

8265.78 -> Halo of invisible dark matter

8270.78 -> subsequent observations revealed that

8273.28 -> most galaxies are surrounded in this way

8275.82 -> including our own indeed current

8278.74 -> estimates suggest that the Milky Way's

8280.719 -> Dark Matter Halo could be up to 15 times

8283.179 -> larger than the visible extent of its

8286.059 -> stars and so astronomers are now

8288.34 -> convinced of dark Matter's significance

8290.5 -> in shaping the modern Universe despite

8293.2 -> our continued inability to detect it

8295.479 -> larger scale studies suggest that dark

8297.939 -> matter outweighs normal matter six to

8300.76 -> one and potentially always has but what

8304.24 -> exactly it is remains a mystery even

8307.12 -> after several decades of concerted study

8309.82 -> one possibility is that the dark matter

8311.92 -> in the universe consists of ordinary

8314.32 -> objects made up of normal baryonic

8316.66 -> matter like quarks and leptons but which

8319.599 -> are hard for us to detect with our

8321.16 -> current Technologies known as massive

8323.74 -> compact Halo objects these are more

8326.38 -> often referred to as machos such objects

8329.92 -> could be black holes of a wide range of

8332.139 -> sizes small but incredibly dense and

8334.42 -> massive neutron stars created when giant

8336.76 -> Stars collapse at the end of their lives

8338.62 -> or an extraordinary number of brown

8341.559 -> dwarfs which contain almost as much mass

8344.439 -> as a star but not quite enough to ignite

8347.34 -> Fusion however as our telescopes and

8350.5 -> instruments improve and we are able to

8352.3 -> probe the depths of Intergalactic space

8354.399 -> in ever more detail the chances of such

8356.859 -> objects in sufficient number continuing

8359.2 -> to escape our notice grow smaller and

8361.66 -> smaller with every passing year because

8364.24 -> of this continued lack of observational

8366.34 -> evidence an alternative possibility is

8368.859 -> currently favored among cosmologists

8371.32 -> that the majority of Dark Matter exists

8374.559 -> as a weakly interacting massive particle

8378.66 -> correspondingly nicknamed wimps

8382.359 -> these would be a completely new kind of

8384.82 -> particle which would sit outside the

8386.979 -> standard model as we understand it today

8389.02 -> but which we have so far failed to

8391.42 -> detect they would not interact with

8393.939 -> normal matter via any of the known

8395.62 -> fundamental forces except for Gravity

8398.08 -> but would nevertheless have a high mass

8400.42 -> or be present in sufficient numbers to

8402.64 -> make up for the universe's 85 percent

8404.939 -> missing mass and indeed the search is on

8408.64 -> in particle accelerators and out in the

8410.859 -> cosmos for any hint of these heavyweight

8413.14 -> wimps but with so little to go on we may

8416.32 -> have a long road ahead of us

8421.2 -> regardless of whether dark matter is a

8423.58 -> macho or a wimp or something else

8425.26 -> entirely it's likely that it has always

8427.54 -> been around sitting in the shadow of

8429.7 -> tangible matter since its Creation in

8432.1 -> the universe's first few fractions of a

8434.38 -> second and it was back in the cosmic

8437.14 -> Dark Ages around a million years after

8439.42 -> the big bang that it began to shape the

8442.24 -> overall structure of the universe the

8445.54 -> cosmic microwave background suggests

8447.76 -> that matter and energy were distributed

8450.04 -> unevenly at the moment of atomic

8452.2 -> recombination and so we can expect that

8454.72 -> dark matter followed suit but in these

8457.6 -> darkened Millennia all that mass comes

8460.72 -> into its own gravity pulls the Dark

8463.12 -> Matter together clumping it more quickly

8465.34 -> and more thickly than we'd expect the

8467.38 -> baryonic matter to Collapse by itself

8469.66 -> the normal matter then has a dark matter

8472.06 -> template to follow and is sucked into

8474.46 -> invisible gravity Wells thus creating

8477.52 -> Cosmos spanning filaments no foods and

8481 -> clusters of gas that will become the

8483.04 -> nurseries for the first stars and

8485.56 -> galaxies and from this point on the

8488.38 -> evolution of the universe we see today

8490.439 -> has become inevitable

8494.2 -> everything that has happened up to this

8496.479 -> point spanning the first million years

8498.939 -> of the cosmic chronology has set the

8501.52 -> stage for the next several billion years

8504.58 -> of astrophysical creation the universe

8507.939 -> has called to a point to a

8509.68 -> comprehensible physics whole sway the

8512.5 -> four forces have settled and become

8514.24 -> distinct determining all fundamental

8516.52 -> interactions and the nature and

8518.68 -> quantities of matter have settled to

8520.84 -> provide the ingredients for generations

8522.58 -> of stars and galaxies the Genesis of

8525.34 -> chemistry and the ultimate creation of

8528.7 -> life

8533.38 -> but that is not quite all

8538.479 -> for 8 billion years events in the

8541.18 -> universe unfold just as we would expect

8543.46 -> them to with these basic ingredients but

8546.64 -> between five and six billion years ago

8548.62 -> not long before the formation of our

8550.72 -> solar system within the Milky Way

8552.54 -> something changed

8554.979 -> and discovering that something 25 years

8557.439 -> ago made it clear that we still don't

8560.02 -> really understand the balance of the

8562.72 -> universe

8564.34 -> this disturbing change in the evolution

8566.56 -> of the universe was first recognized in

8569.08 -> 1998 when astronomers were studying

8571.6 -> supernovae at different points in space

8573.939 -> and time supernovae of a certain size

8576.46 -> are sometimes known as standard candles

8578.859 -> because they explode with a known and

8581.08 -> predictable brightness and Luminosity as

8583.42 -> a result they have become valuable tools

8585.399 -> for measuring Cosmic expansion since

8587.74 -> their light will be stretched into

8589.06 -> redder wavelengths with the expansion of

8591.1 -> the space between them and our

8592.84 -> instruments but astronomers noticed that

8595.6 -> for the last 5 billion years or so the

8598.54 -> supernovae are more redshifted than they

8601.18 -> should be and so have been moving away

8603.22 -> from us faster than they should a

8605.859 -> pattern that can also be seen in

8607.24 -> measurements of baryonic acoustic

8608.68 -> oscillations and Galaxy clusters not

8611.8 -> only that but the accelerated expansion

8614.38 -> itself seems to be accelerating

8619.92 -> foreign

8621.66 -> explanation for this most recent phase

8624.22 -> change of the universe is dark energy

8627.1 -> and so for the entire history of our

8629.5 -> solar system we have been living in a

8632.02 -> dark energy dominated era as with dark

8635.02 -> matter cosmologists still don't have a

8637.6 -> good idea of what Dark Energy actually

8639.819 -> is when Einstein was formulating his

8642.939 -> theory of general relativity he

8644.92 -> introduced the idea of the cosmological

8647.38 -> constant representing the intrinsic

8649.78 -> energy of empty space as space expands

8652.78 -> there is objectively more of this energy

8654.939 -> which could serve to drive further

8657.399 -> expansion in the end general relativity

8659.979 -> didn't need this modifying constant but

8662.62 -> the idea has found new life in

8664.72 -> explaining away dark energy

8667.3 -> the problem remains however that we do

8669.88 -> not understand why such an intrinsic

8672.58 -> energy should be present at all if the

8675.76 -> explanation cannot be found when

8677.14 -> searching on Cosmic scales perhaps the

8679.78 -> physics of the very small holds a clue

8682.18 -> quantum theory predicts a phenomenon

8684.46 -> known as vacuum energy in which the

8686.979 -> virtual particles that spring

8688.42 -> spontaneously into and out of existence

8690.7 -> due to random Quantum fluctuations exert

8693.16 -> a pressure causing expansion it is a

8697 -> promising idea but calculations that

8698.979 -> apply this vacuum energy to larger

8700.84 -> scales come out far too high to properly

8703.6 -> explain the expansion that we see some

8706.899 -> cosmologists are considering something

8708.58 -> entirely different a new kind of energy

8711.34 -> field called quintessence which acts in

8714.04 -> the opposite way to normal matter and

8716.02 -> normal energy can either be attractive

8718 -> or repulsive and can change its Behavior

8720.52 -> over time but without experiments or

8722.979 -> observations that can easily probe that

8725.14 -> force or even confirm its existence we

8728.08 -> are left stranded in the Dark As Time

8731.08 -> Ticks by and the space surrounding us

8734.74 -> expands

8735.77 -> [Music]

8739.479 -> and so whatever it is we're left with a

8743.319 -> universe that is approximately 68

8745.54 -> percent Dark Energy 27 percent dark

8750.04 -> matter and less than five percent

8752.979 -> normal matter

8758.14 -> and it is from these ingredients that

8760.84 -> our universe has grown and developed

8763 -> over 13.8 billion years following the

8767.2 -> rules and constants that were evident in

8769.359 -> its very first moments in the first 10

8772.62 -> tradicilianths of a second after

8775.96 -> the Big Bang

8777.1 -> [Music]

8783.34 -> you've been watching the entire history

8785.14 -> of the universe don't forget to like And

8787.479 -> subscribe and leave a comment to tell us

8789.16 -> what you think as we venture past the

8791.319 -> first million years of the universe

8794.2 -> thanks for watching and we'll see you

8796.6 -> next time

8801.88 -> foreign

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Illx0WkCxU